International  Association  of 
Instructors  and  Investigators 
in  Po.ultry '.Husbandry 


VOLUME  ( 


Proceedings  of  the  Meetings  for 
the 'Years  !998?  I909f  1910 


SF48I 
16 

\CtoR-IQ 


International  Association  of 

Instructors  and  Investigators 

in  Poultry  Husbandry 


VOLUME  I 


Proceedings  of  the  Meetings  for 
the  Years  1908,  1909,  1910 


Committee  on  Publication 

JAMES  E.  RICE  HOWARD  C.  PIERCE 

RAYMOND  PEARL 

C.  A.  ROGERS,  Editor 


ITHACA,  N.  Y. 


PRESS  OF  W.  F.  HUKPHREY 
GENEVA,  N.  Y. 


Copyright,  1912,  by 

The  International  Association  of  Instructors  and 
Investigators  in  Poultry  Husbandry 


CONTENTS 

Foreword.  Pace 

Proceedings  of  the  meeting  for  1908  -  7 

Proceedings  of  the  meeting  for  1909  -  12 

Proceedings  of  the  meeting  for  1910  -  -  -  -  IT 

Address  of  Welcome  for  1908— James  E.  Rice  -  -  24 

Response — James  E.  Rice  -  24 

The  Field  of  Research  in  Poultry  Husbandry — Horace  Atwood  -  27 

Inheritance  of  the  Function  of  Egg  Production  in  the  Domestic 

Fowl  and  its  Influence  on  the  Fertility  and  Hatching  Power 

of  Eggs — Raymond  Pearl  -  -  -  80 

A  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Investigation  for  1909 — 

Philip  B.  Hadley  50 

The  Present  Status  of  Investigation  of  the  Problems  of  Poultry 

Culture  for  1909— Philip  B.  Hadley  -  51 

The  Present  Status  of  Investigation  of  the  Problems  of  Poultry 

Culture  for  1910— Philip  B.  Hadley  -  -  59 

Profitable  Lines  of  Investigation  in  Poultry  Diseases — 

George  Byron  Morse  ...  62 

The  Relation  of  Intestinal  Worms  to  Poultry  Hygiene — 

George  Edward  Gage  -  66 

Fowl  Cholera  (Cholera  Gallinarum) — J.  Willems,  Translated  by 

Victor  Fortier  -  71 

Present  Condition  of  Experimental  Work  in  Feeding — 

R.  R.  Slocum  -  73 

Feeding  Color — An  Aid  in  Studying  Physiological  Development — 

C.  A.  Rogers  77 

Influence  of  the  Type  of  the  House  upon  the  Progeny — 

L.  C.  Opperman  -  82 

Some  Recent  Experiments  in  Incubation — James  Dryden.  -  85 

Comparison  of  Poultry  Keeping  in  Europe,  United  States  and 

Canada— Wril  Brown.  -  88 

An  Outline  for  a  Course  of  Study  in  Poultry  Husbandry — 

James  E.  Rice      -  94 

250706 


4  CONTENTS 

Teaching  by  Farm  Trains  and  Educational  Exhibits  at  Fairs — 

W.  A.  Brown.  -  105 

Teaching  by  Lectures,  Recitations  and  Reference  Reading — 

Wm.  A.  Lippincott  -  -  108 

Poultry  Pathology.  Its  Place  in  the  Curriculum — 

George  Byron  Morse  -  110 

Study  of  Feeds  and  Methods  of  Instruction  in  Feeding — 

W.  G.  Krum  -  114 

Instruction  in  Feeding  Poultry — C.  A.  Rogers  119 

A  Combined  Report  of  the  Committees  on  Bibliography — 

Clara  Nixon  -  -  122 

Constitution  and  By-laws  -  158 

Members  .......... 


FOREWORD 

For  a  number  of  years  previous  to  the  formation  of  the  International 
Association  of  Instructors  and  Investigators  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  there 
existed  among  several  interested  in  Poultry  work  a  desire  to  discuss  common 
problems  and  various  methods.  A  movement  to  accomplish  this  desirable 
end  was  set  on  foot  as  early  as  1906  when  several  teachers  of  Poultry  Hus- 
bandry met  at  the  Madison  Square  Garden  Show  for  an  impromptu 
discussion. 

A  little  later,  in  1908  to  be  specific,  others  feeling  that  conditions  were 
ripe  for  concerted  action  and  organization  united  in  an  effort  to  assemble 
all  teachers  and  investigators  of  Poultry  Culture.  After  considerable 
discussion  it  was  decided  to  hold  a  conference  in  connection  with  the  course 
in  Poultry  at  the  Graduate  School  of  Agriculture,  meeting  that  year  at 
Cornell  University. 

A  regular  organization  was  effected  at  this  conference.  The  interest 
manifested  induced  the  directors  to  hold  a  meeting  of  the  Association 
annually.  The  second  conference  was  held  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College  and  Experiment  Station  and  the  third  at  the  Iowa  Agricultural 
College  and  Experiment  Station. 

This  volume  contains  a  report  of  the  proceedings  of  the  first  three 
conferences  of  the  International  Association  of  Instructors  and  Investiga- 
tors in  Poultry  Husbandry.  No  definite  action  was  taken  to  publish  the 
proceedings  of  this  Association  until  the  third  annual  conference.  Con- 
sequently a  large  portion  of  the  material  of  these  first  meetings  is  not 
available.  This  fact  accounts  for  the  publication  in  one  volume  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  first  three  meetings. 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  MEETING  FOR  1908 

"In  accordance  with  a  notice  previously  given,  requesting  the  several 
workers  in  poultry  lines  from  the  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment 
Stations  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  now  attending  the  Graduate 
School  of  Agriculture,  a  call  was  made  to  meet  in  the  Amphitheatre  in 
Stimson  Hall  immediately  after  the  close  of  the  lecture  in  Poultry  Hus- 
bandry. The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  12:15  and  Horace  Atwood  of 
West  Virginia  elected  chairman.  James  P.  Kerr  of  Agricultural  College, 
Miss.,  was  elected  secretary.  James  E.  Rice  was  called  upon  to  state  the 
object  of  the  meeting.  He  spoke  of  the  proposed  conference  of  Poultry 
Instructors  and  Investigators  to  be  held  on  Thursday,  Friday  and  Satur- 
day, July  23,  24  and  25, 1908,  and  gave  a  list  of  names  of  persons  expected. 

James  E.  Rice  then  moved  that  a  committee  of  six,  consisting  of  Chair- 
man Atwood,  who  would  also  act  as  chairman  of  said  committee,  and  five 
others  to  be  named  by  him,  be  appointed  to  prepare  a  program  for  the  pro- 
posed Conference.  After  some  discussion  the  motion  was  passed  unani- 
mously and  the  following  committee  appointed :  Horace  Atwood,  chair- 
man; James  E.  Rice,  J.  P.  Kerr;  C.  A.  Rogers,  O.  W.  Dynes,  and  Clara 
Nixon."* 

THE  PROGRAM 

THURSDAY,  FRIDAY  AND  SATURDAY,  JULY  23,  24  and  25,  1908 
Poultry  Laboratory,  Dairy  Building,  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture 

AT    CORNELL    UNIVERSITY 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 


Afternoon  Session 
THURSDAY,  JULY  23,  2  p.  M. 

E.  C.  Pierce,  Assistant  Professor  oj  Animal  Husbandry  in  charge  oj  Poultry, 
Iowa    State    College,    Ames,    Iowa,    Presiding. 

Address  of  Welcome,     -  -    James  E.  Rice; 

Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Cornell  University. 
Greeting, Dr.  A.  C.  True 

Dean  of  the  Graduate  School  of  Agriculture  and  Director  of  the  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Response, -    James  E.  Rice 


*Quoted  from  the  Secretary's  minutes. 


8  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL 

"Methods  of  Instruction  in  Poultry  Husbandry,*'  James  E.  Rice 

General  Discussion,  led  by  -    C.  K.  Graham 

Professor  of  Poultry  Culture,  Connecticut  Agricultural  College,  Storrs,  Conn. 

Demonstrations:     "Judging  Eggs,"  and  "Study  of  the  Anatomy 

of  the  Egg,"  C.  A.  Rogers 

Assistant  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Cornell  University. 

General  Discussion,  led  by  -  -  -  -   W.  R.  Graham 


Evening  Session 
THURSDAY,  JULY  23,  8  P.  M. 

James  P.  Kerr,  in  charge  oj  Poultry  Department,  Mississippi  State  Experi- 
ment Station  and  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  Agricultural 
College,  Miss.,  Presiding. 

Demonstration:     "Anatomy  of  Poultry/*  H.  C.  Pierce 

General  Discussion,  led  by      -  Dr.  Geo.  B.  Morse 

Biologist,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Demonstration:     "Study  of  Feeds"  and  "Methods  of  Instruction  in 

Feeding,**      -  W.  G.  Krum 

Superintendent  Poultry  Plant,  Cornell  University. 

General  Discussion,  led  by  -  Alfred  G.  Lunn 

Assistant  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  Oregon  Agricultural  College  and  Experiment 

Station,  Corvalis,  Oregon. 

General  Discussion,  led  by  -      C.  L.  Opperman 

Poultryman,   Maryland   Agricultural   College,   College   Park,   Md. 


Afternoon  Session 
FRIDAY,  JULY  24,  2  p.  M. 

R.  R.  Slocum,  Poultryman,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C., 

Presiding. 
Demonstration:     "Scoring  Dressed  Poultry,"  W.  R.  Graham 

General  Discussion  led  by  -  R.  C.  Lawry 

Assistant  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  Cornell  University. 

Demonstration:     "Judging  Live  Poultry  for  Utility,"  R.  C.  Lawry 

General  Discussion  led  by  -  W.  A.  Brown 

Demonstration:     "Judging  Exhibition  Poultry,'* 

American  Class,     -  J.  P.  Kerr 

Mediterranean  Class,  -  S.  T.  CampbeU 

In  charge  of  Poultry  Course,  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  O. 


ASSOCIATION    IN    POULTRY    HUSBANDRY  9 

General  Discussion  led  by  -  /.  W.  Clark 

In  charge  of  Winter  Poultry  Course,  Pennsylvania  State  College, 
State  College,  Pa. 

'  'Methods  of  Teaching  the  Principles  of  Laying  Out  and  Constructing 

a  Poultry  House,"  -     James  G.  Hatpin 

Assistant    Professor    Poultry    Husbandry,    Michigan    Agricultural    College, 
East  Lansing,  Michigan. 

General  Discussion  led  by  -  Horace  Atwood 

In  charge  of  Poultry  Experiments,  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station,  Morgan- 
town,  W.  Va. 


Evening  Session 
FRIDAY,  JULY  24,  8  p.  M* 

Dr.  C.  B.  Davenport,  in  charge  oj  Carnegie  Laboratory, 
Cold  Spring  H arbor ,  N.  Y.,  Presiding. 

"The  Field  of  Research  in  Poultry  Husbandry,"    -  -  Horace  Atwood 

"Breeding  Experiments  and  Methods  of  Keeping  Records," 

Dr.  Raymond  Pearl 

Biologist,  Maine  Experiment  Station,  Orono,  Me. 

General  Discussion,  led  by  -      Dr.  C.  B.  Davenport 

'  'Profitable  Lines  of  Investigation  in  Poultry  Diseases,"     Dr.  Geo.  B.  Morse 

General  Discussion,  led  by      -  -  Dr.  Archibald  R.  Ward 

Bacteriologist,   University  of  California,   Berkeley,  California. 


Morning  Session 

SATURDAY,  JULY  25, 8  A  .M. 

W.  R.  Graham,  Presiding. 

"White  Diarrhoea  in  Chicks,"       -  Dr.  Geo.  B.  Morse 

General  Discussion,  led  by  -      Dr.  Raymond  Pearl 

INTERMISSION  9  to  11  A.  M. 

Inspection  of  the  Cornell  University  Poultry  Plant,  11  to  12  A.  M. 


Afternoon  Session 
SATURDAY,  JULY  25, 2  p.  M. 
S.    T.    Campbell,   Presiding. 

"The  Function  of  Carbondioxide  in  Incubation,"  -  W.  R.  Graham 

"Influence  of  Varying  Temperatures  During  the  Early  Periods  of 

Incubation," J.  W.  Clark 


10  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL 

"The  Use  of  Moisture  During  Incubation,"  Horace  Atwood 

"Short  talks  on  the  Poultry  Work  in  the  Various  States  and  Provinces," 

Introduced  by  0.  W.  Dynes 

In  charge  of  Poultry,  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station,  Agricultural  College,  N.  D. 

"Ways  and  Means  for  Establishing  and  Maintaining  Poultry  Depart- 
ments,"   -  R.  R.  Slocum 
Followed  by  "Round  Table  Discussion." 
Papers  from  James  Dryden,   Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Oregon 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,   Corvalis,  Oregon,  and  by  D.   J. 

Lambert,  in  charge  of  Instruction  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  Kingston, 

Rhode  Island.  

Organization  of  an  "International  Association  of  Instructors  and  Investiga- 
tors in  Poultry  Husbandry." 

In  response  to  a  general  demand,  a  meeting  was  called  at  11:30  p.  M., 
July  25th,  to  organize  an  International  Association  of  Instructors  and 
Investigators  in  Poultry  Husbandry  in  the  United  States  and  Dominion 
of  Canada. 

W.  R.  Graham  was  elected  chairman.  S.  T.  Campbell  was  made 
secretary. 

The  objects  of  the  meeting  were  stated  by  the  chair.  After  a  general 
discussion  it  was  moved  and  carried  that  an  organization  of  Instructors 
and  Investigators  in  Poultry  Husbandry  be  formed. 

The  chair  then  presented  for  consideration  a  proposed  constitution  and 
by-laws  prepared  by  a  self-constituted  committee  consisting  of  W.  R. 
Graham,  Horace  Atwood,  H.  C.  Pierce,  J.  P.  Kerr  and  James  E.  Rice. 

After  general  discussion  it  was  moved  and  carried  that  the  section  relat- 
ing to  the  election  of  officers  be  adopted  and  the  matter  of  final  adoption  of 
constitution  and  by-laws  be  left  to  the  Board  of  Directors  after  such 
changes  had  been  made  as  in  their  judgment  seemed  best. 

The  following  officers  and  directors  were  then  elected :  President,  W.  R. 
Graham;  1st  vice-president,  James  Dryden;  2d  vice-president,  Raymond 
Pearl;  secretary-treasurer,  James  E.  Rice;  directors  for  1908-10,  Horace 
Atwood,  James  P.  Kerr,  S.  T.  Campbell;  directors  for  1908-9,  H.  C. 
Pierce,  R.  R.  Slocum. 

Before  adjourning  the  members  in  conference  extended  a  hearty  vote 
of  thanks  and  appreciation  to  the  Poultry  Department  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity for  providing  a  meeting  place  and  for  other  courtesies. 


ASSOCIATION    IN    POULTRY    HUSBANDRY 


11 


Atwood  Horace 
Brown,  W.  A. 
Campbell,  S.  T. 
Clark,  J.  W. 
Davenport,  Dr.  C.  B. 
Dynes,  O.  W. 
Graham,  C.  K. 
Graham,  W.  R. 
Hadley,  P.  B. 


ATTENDANCE 

Halpin,  J.  G. 
Holden,  Arthur  B. 
Kerr,  James  P. 
Krum,  W.  G. 
Lawry,  Rolla  C. 
Lunn,  Alfred  G. 
McAleer,  Harry  A. 
Morse,  Geo.  Byron 
Nixon,  Clara 

COMMITTEES  FOR  1909 
Legislation 


Opperman,  C.  L. 
Pearl,  Raymond 
Pierce,  H.  C. 
Rice,  J.  E. 
Rogers,  C.  A. 
Slocum,  R.  R. 
Williams,  R.  H. 
Wilkins,  Stanley  D. 


C.  K.  Graham 

O.  W.  Dynes 

R.  C.  Lawry 

P.  B.  Hadley 

Investigation 
James  G.  Halpin 

J.  P.  Landry 

A.  A.  Brigham 

Instruction 
W.  A.  Brown 

W.  G.  Krum 

D.  J.  Lambert 

Breeding 
C.  B.  Davenport 

J.  S.  Jeffrey 

F.  H.  Stoneburn 

Feeding 
A.  W.  Foley 

A.  G.  Gilbert 

F.  C.  Elford 

Incubation 
C.  A.  Rogers 

J.  W.  Clark 

Geo.  Byron  Morse 

Diseases  and  Parasites 
Archibald  Ward 

W.  T.  Kirkpatrick 

Clara  Nixon 

Bibliography 
Victor  Fortier 

Frank  Surface 

PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   MEETING   FOR    1909 

The  second  annual  conference  of  the  International  Association  of 
Instructors  and  Investigators  in  Poultry  Husbandry  was  held  at  the 
Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Guelph,  Canada,  on  August  13th  and  14th, 
1909. 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  1 :30  p.  M.  by  President  Graham,  who 
introduced  Mr.  G.  C.  Creelman,  President  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College.  President  Creelman  gave  a  hearty  and  inspiring  address  of 
welcome. 

The  program,  with  a  few  exceptions,  was  carried  out  as  printed. 

At  the  business  meeting,  Saturday  afternoon,  August  14th,  President 
W.  R.  Graham  was  in  the  chair.  The  minutes  of  the  last  meeting  were 
read  by  the  Secretary-Treasurer  and  approved. 

The  action  of  the  Board  of  Directors  in  accepting  new  members  was 
approved. 

A  formal  ballot  for  President  resulted  in  the  election  of  Dr.  Raymond 
Pearl. 

At  this  point  the  election  of  officers  was  interrupted  to  adjourn  to  the 
lawn  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  group  picture.  Later  the  meeting 
re-assembled  and  the  election  of  officers  was  continued  with  the  following 
results:  First  vice-president,  James  Dryden;  second  vice-president,  F.  C. 
Elford;  secretary-treasurer,  H.  C.  Pierce;  directors  for  1909-11,  James  E. 
Rice  and  W.  R.  Graham. 

The  Secretary-Treasurer's  report  stated  that  practically  all  of  the 
persons  now  qualified  for  membership  in  the  Association  had  joined  the 
organization.  The  membership  now  consisted  of  54,  with  two  applications 
yet  to  be  considered.  The  books  showed  a  balance  of  $38.28+  dues  col- 
lectable and  due,  $35.00,  making  the  total  assets  $73.28.  The  books  were 
submitted  showing  detailed  statements  of  accounts,  with  signed  vouchers 
for  all  bills  which  had  been  paid.  The  report  was  approved. 

At  the  close  of  the  conference  the  Association  extended  a  hearty  vote  of 
thanks  to  President  Creelman  and  Professor  W.  R.  Graham  for  their 
hospitality  and  the  splendid  facilities  with  which  they  had  provided  the 
Association. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

JAMES  E.  RICE, 

Secretary-  Treasurer. 


ASSOCIATION  IN  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY  13 

THE  PROGRAM 

FRIDAY  AND  SATURDAY,  AUGUST  13  AND  14,  1909 

POULTRY    DEPARTMENT,    ONTARIO    AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE 

GUELPH,  CANADA 

Afternoon  Session 
FRIDAY,  AUGUST  13,   1 :30  p.  M. 

Address  of  Welcome,     -  President  G.  C.  Creelman 

President  Ontario  Agricultural  College. 

Response,      -  Dr.  Raymond  Pearl 

Biologist,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Orono,  Maine. 

President's  Address,      -  Pro/.  W.  R.  Graham 

Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Ontario  Agricultural  College. 

"Color  Pigments  as  an  Aid  in  Studying  Physiological  Developments 

in  Poultry,"  -  C.  A.  Rogers 

Assistant  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

"Modern  Methods  of  Feeding  Poultry,"       -  A.  G.  Gilbert 

In  charge  of  Poultry  Department,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Ottawa,  Can. 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Feeding  Poultry, 

F.  H.  Stoneburn,  A.  G.  Gilbert 

The  Association  was  entertained  at  luncheon  by  the  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College,  5:30-6:30  p.  M. 
Inspection  of  the  Poultry  Department,  6:30-8:30  P.  M. 


Evening  Session 

FRIDAY,  AUGUST  13,  8:00  p.  M. 
"The  Influence  of  Age  in  Determining  the  Value  of  Breeding  Stock," 

Horace  Atwood 

In  charge  of  the  Poultry  Department,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Morgan- 
town,  W.  Virginia. 

"Inheritance  of  Color  in  the  Domestic  Fowl"  (paper),  Dr.  C.  B.  Davenport 

In  charge  of  Carnegie  Experimental  Laboratory,  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  New  York. 

"Inheritance  of  the  Function  of  Egg  Production  in  the  Domestic  Fowl, 
and  its  Influence  on  the  Fertility  and  Hatching  Power  of  Eggs, 

Dr.  Raymond  Pearl 
Report  of  Committee  on  Breeding  Poultry,  -  D.  J.  Lambert 


14  PROCEEDINGS  OF   THE   INTERNATIONAL 

Morning  Session 
SATURDAY,  AUGUST  14,  9:30  A.  M. 
Demonstration  on  "Trussing,"  with  Remarks  on  English  Table  Poultry, 

Miss  Mary  Yates 

"Recent  Light  on  the  Problems  of  Incubation,"  (paper)        James  Dry  den 

Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Corvallis,  Oregon 

"Conditions  Affecting  Eggs  Kept  for  Hatching,"    -  -    A.  G.  Phillips 

In  charge  of  Poultry   Department,   Manhattan,   Kansas. 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Incubation, 

F.  C.  Elford,  C.  A.  Rogers,  J.  W.  Clark 


Afternoon  Session 
SATURDAY,  AUGUST  14,  2:00  p.  M. 
"Comparison  of  Poultry  Keeping  in  Europe,  United  States  and  Canada," 

(Paper)  -     Wil  Broum 

In  charge  of  Poultry  Experiments,  Reading,  England. 

"Co-operative  Poultry  Associations,"  -       F.  C.  Elford 

In  charge  of  Poultry  Department,  McDonald  College,  Quebec,  Canada. 

"Mortality  in  Chickens,"         -  Dr.  Geo.  B.  Morse 

Pathologist,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Dr.  P.  B.  Hadley 

Biologist,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Kingston,  R.  I.  (paper) 

Report  of  Committee  on  Poultry  Diseases, 

Dr.  Geo.  B.  Morse,  Wm.  F.  Kirkpatrick 

"Poultry  Departments  and  Poultry  Associations,"  F.  H.  Stoneburn 

Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Connecticut  Agricultural  College,  Storrs,  Conn. 


Evening  Session 

AUGUST  14,  8:00  P.  M. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Investigation,  -    P.  B.  Hadley 

Report  of  Committee  on  Bibliography, 

Miss  Clara  Nixon,  Victor  Fortier,  F.  M.  Surface 

TOPICS  OF  GENERAL  DISCUSSION 

(Speakers  called  upon  impromptu  by  the  presiding  officer.) 
What  should  be  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  on  the  question  of  large  poultry 
farms? 


ASSOCIATION    IN    POULTRY    HUSBANDRY 


15 


What  is  the  scientific  or  practical  value  of  the  "Magic  Egg  Tester?" 

Cold  versus  warm  brooding  systems.     Which  is  to  be  preferred? 

Influences  affecting  fertility  and  hatching  power  of  eggs. 

What  is  the  best  method  of  feeding  chicks  from  hatching  to  laying  age? 

The  effect  of  meat  food  on  the  fertility  and  hatching  power  of  eggs. 

Effect  of  green  food  on  egg  yield  and  hatching  power. 

Conditions  affecting  constitutional  vigor. 

HEADQUARTERS:     King  Edward  Hotel. 


Atwood,  Horace 
Baldwin,  L.  H. 
Brown,  W.  A. 
Card,  W.  H. 
Creelman,  G.  C. 
Clark,  J.  W. 
Drew,  J.  M. 
Edwards,  S.  F. 
Elford,  F.  C. 
Gage,  G.  E. 


C.  K.  Graham 
P.  B.  Hadley 
James  E.  Rice 

F.  H.  Stoneburn 
C.  A.  Rogers 


Attendance 

Gilbert,  A.  G. 
Graham,  W.  R. 
Herner,  M.  C. 
Jackson,  Homer 
Jones,  F.  S. 
Kirkpatrick,  Wm.  F. 
Lambert,  D.  J. 
McAleer,  H.  A. 
Morse,  Geo.  B. 
Opperman,  C.  L. 

COMMITTEES  FOR  1910 

Legislation 
T.  E.  Quisenberry 

Investigation 
James  G.  Halpin 

Instruction 
Homer  Jackson 
Geo.  B.  Morse 

Breeding 
C.  B.  Davenport 

Feeding 
A.  G.  Gilbert 


Pearl,  R. 
Phillips,  A.  G. 
Pierce,  H.  C. 
Quisenberry,  T.  E. 
Rice,  J.  E. 
Rogers,  C.  A. 
Slocum,  R.  R. 
Spear,  A.  E. 
Stoneburn,  F.  H. 


A.  G.  Phillips 
J.  P.  Landry 
W.  A.  Brown 

R.  R.  Slocum 
R.  R.  Slocum 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE   MEETING   FOR   1910 

The  third  annual  conference  was  held  at  the  Iowa  State  College,  at 
Ames,  Iowa,  on  Saturday,  July  30th,  and  Monday  and  Tuesday,  August 
1st  and  2d,  1910. 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  9  A.  M.  Saturday  morning  by  Presi- 
dent Pearl. 

A  hearty  address  of  welcome  was  given  to  the  Association  by  Dr.  A.  B. 
Storms,  president  of  the  Iowa  State  College.  Dr.  Pearl  made  an  appro- 
priate response. 

The  minutes  of  the  preceding  meeting  were  read  and  approved. 

The  executive  committee  reported  the  election  of  seven  new  members 
since  the  last  meeting. 

The  association  then  elected  the  following  officers  for  the  year  1910-11: 
President,  James  E.  Rice;  1st  vice-president,  F.  C.  Elford;  2d  vice-presi- 
dent, Horace  Atwood;  secretary-treasurer,  H.  C.  Pierce;  directors  for 
1910-12,  T.  E.  Quisenberry,  Raymond  Pearl  and  J.  G.  Halpin.  Director 
for  1909-11  to  fill  the  unexpired  term  of  J.  E.  Rice,  resigned,  C.  A.  Rogers. 

The  Association  instructed  the  President  to  appoint  a  committee  of 
which  he  should  be  chairman  to  submit  an  amendment  to  the  constitution 
regarding  the  admission  of  honorary  members,  to  consider  the  admission  of 
associate  members  and  prepare  an  amendment  to  the  constitution  covering 
their  recommendations,  and  to  consider  a  change  in  the  name  of  the 
Association.  The  following  committee  was  selected:  Raymond  Pearl, 
James  E.  Rice  and  H.  C.  Pierce. 

The  Association  further  instructed  the  President  to  appoint  a  second 
committee  of  which  he  should  be  chairman  to  report  upon  the  advisability 
of  publishing  the  proceedings  of  the  annual  meeting  and  a  poultry  bibli- 
ography. The  President  selected  the  following  committee:  Raymond 
Pearl,  James  E.  Rice  and  W.  R.  Graham. 

The  Secretary  was  instructed  to  have  the  constitution  and  by-laws 
reprinted  containing  also  a  list  of  the  active  members  and  a  copy  sent  to 
each  active  member. 

After  a  spirited  discussion  of  the  relation  of  this  association  to  the 
American  Poultry  Association,  the  President  was  instructed  to  appoint  a 
committee  of  three  to  draw  up  resolutions  regarding  the  relations  of  these 
two  associations.  The  committee  appointed  consisted  of  T.  E.  Quisen- 
berry, James  E.  Rice  and  N.  E.  Chapman.  At  a  later  session  this  commit- 
tee read  the  following  resolutions,  which  were  adopted. 


18  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL 

Appreciating  the  fact  that  the  ultimate  aims  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association  and  the  International  Association  of  Instructors  and  Investiga- 
tors in  Poultry  Husbandry  are  identical,  namely,  the  upbuilding  of  Poultry 
Husbandry  as  a  profession,  and  believing  that  this  end  can  best  be  attained 
by  the  mutual  co-operation  and  support  of  the  two  organizations : 

Therefore,  we,  the  members  of  the  International  Association  of  Investi- 
gators and  Instructors  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  42  per  cent,  of  whom  are  also 
members  of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  suggest  the  following  means 
of  co-operation  and  request  favorable  action  on  the  part  of  the  American 
Poultry  Association  at  its  annual  meeting  in  St.  Louis,  August  loth  to  20th, 
1910,  namely, 

That  the  Secretary  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  be  instructed 
to  arrange,  without  expense  to  the  American  Poultry  Association,  or 
without  charge  on  the  part  of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  for 
preserving  the  type  and  cuts  of  such  portions  of  the  proceedings  as  relate 
to  the  work  of  the  poultry  departments  of  the  Agricultural  Colleges  and 
Experiment  Stations  and  matters  pertaining  to  State  aid  for  Poultry 
Departments  and  Poultry  Organizations.  Such  part  of  the  proceedings  as 
is  deemed  desirable  shall  be  designated  by  a  special  legislative  committee  of 
three  members  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  to  be  appointed  by  the 
President  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  Branch  Associations  and  members  of 
this  Association  in  territory  where  Branches  do  not  exist. 

And,  be  it  further  resolved,  that  upon  the  request  of  a  Branch  president 
or  three  members  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  in  any  State, 
Province,  or  Territory,  the  President  shall  appoint  a  member  from  that 
State,  Province  or  Territory,  who  shall  be  delegated  to  represent  the 
American  Poultry  Association  and  shall  work  with  the  special  legislative 
committee  herein  provided  for  in  promoting  campaigns  of  education  for 
the  advancement  of  Poultry  Husbandry  through  the  poultry  departments 
and  poultry  associations. 

T.  E.  QUISENBERRY,  Missouri, 
JAMES  E.  RICE,  New  York, 
N.  E.  CHAPMAN,  Minnesota, 

Committee. 

The  resolution  was  adopted  by  unanimous  vote. 

This  resolution  was  also  adopted  by  the  American  Poultry  Association 
at  its  35th  Annual  Meeting  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  August  16-18,  1910. 

The  committee  on  publications  made  the  following  report,  which  was 
adopted: 

SEC.  1. — This  association  shall  publish  the  proceedings  of  its  meet- 
ings, including  the  reports  of  the  several  standing  committees  and  such 


ASSOCIATION   IN    POULTRY   HUSBANDRY  19 

papers  and  addresses  as  shall  in  the  judgment  of  the  editorial  board  be 
worthy  of  permanent  preservation  and  record. 

SEC.  2. — The  editing  of  the  proceedings  shall  be  under  the  control  of  an 
Editorial  Board  of  four  members  as  follows:  (a)  The  President  and 
Secretary-Treasurer  ex-offido\  (b)  one  director  to  be  chosen  by  the  directors 
of  the  association.  These  three  members  of  the  Editorial  Board  thus 
provided  for  shall  serve  during  the  entire  term  of  the  office  to  which  they 
are  elected ;  (c)  The  fourth  member  shall  be  an  Editor-in-Chief  and  shall 
be  elected  annually  by  the  other  three  members  of  the  Editorial  Board. 

SEC.  3. — Each  member  of  the  Association  in  good  standing  shall  be 
entitled  to  one  copy  of  all  publications  issued. 

The  committee  on  honorary  and  associate  membership  and  change  of 
name  reported  that  they  believed  it  advisable  to  attempt  to  make  this 
association  international  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name,  and  recommended 
that  it  be  continued  to  perfect  such  an  organization  if  possible. 

After  a  brief  but  hearty  discussion,  in  which  all  present  were  in  favor 
of  the  proposal,  it  was  moved  and  seconded  and  passed  that  the  committee 
on  International  Organization,  consisting  of  Raymond  Pearl,  J.  E.  Rice  and 
H.  C.  Pierce,  be  continued,  and  endeavor  to  perfect  an  international  organi- 
zation of  instructors  and  investigators  in  poultry  husbandry. 

The  Secretary  was  instructed  to  send,  each  year,  a  copy  of  the  program 
of  the  annual  meetings  to  all  presidents,  deans  and  directors  of  Agricultural 
Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations  and  the  Principals  of  Agricultural  High 
Schools  and  secondary  schools  of  agriculture. 

The  Treasurer's  report  was  read  as  follows  and  adopted: 

RECEIPTS 

Check  from  Prof.  J.  E.  Rice  outgoing  treasurer  -                       -     $38.281 

Received  from  initiation  fees  14.00 

Received  from  dues       -  -       41.00 

$93.28 

EXPENDITURES 

Postage  -     $  3.43 

Printing  10.25 

Typewriting  4.00 

Telegrams     -  1.20 

$18.88 
Cash  on  hand  dep.  in  Union  Nat'l  Bank  -       74.40 

$93.28 

Respectfully  submitted, 
H.  C.  PIERCE, 

Secretary-Treasurer. 


20  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL 

THE  PROGRAM 

SATURDAY,  JULY  30  AND  MONDAY,  AND  TUESDAY  AUGUST  1  AND  2,  1910 

IOWA  STATE  COLLEGE 
AMES,  IOWA 

SATURDAY 
9:00  A.  M.  ROOM  117  HALL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Address  of  Welcome,     -  -          Dr.  A.  B.  Storms 

President  Iowa  State  College. 

Response,      -  Dr.  Raymond  Pearl,  Pres. 

Business  Meeting 

Roll  Call 

Minutes    of  Last  Meeting 

Election  of  New  Members 

Report  of  Executive  Committee 

Unfinished  Business 

Election  of  Officers 

New  Business 

Under  the  head  of  New  Business  it  is  proposed  to  discuss  tentatively  certain  topics 
such  as  Relation  of  the  International  Association  of  Instructors  and  Investigators  in 
Poultry  Husbandry  to  the  American  Poultry  Association. 

Publication  of  Transactions 
Publication  of  Poultry  Bibliography 

Admission  of  Honorary  Members 

Final  action  on  these  topics  to  be  deferred  until  a  later  meeting. 


SATURDAY  AFTERNOON  2:00  p.  M. 
Report  of  Committee  on  Incubation. 

Effect  of  Housing  on  the  Domestic  Fowl,     -  -  C.  L.  Opperman 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Investigation,  -  -    Dr.  P.  B.  Hadley 

Rhode  Island  Agricultural  College. 


SATURDAY  EVENING  8:00  p.  M. 
Address — "Poultry  Co-operation  and  Extension," 

Prof.  N.  E.  Chapman,  Minn. 

Paper,  "Farm  Trains  and  Educational  Exhibits/'        Prof.  W.  A.  Brown 

University  of  Maine,  Orono,  Maine. 
Read  by-------         Geo.  Brown 


ASSOCIATION   IN    POULTRY   HUSBANDRY  21 

Paper — "Relation  of  the  International  Association  of  Instructors  and 
Investigators  in  Poultry  Husbandry  to  the  American  Poultry 

Association,"  S.  T.  Campbell 

Secretary  American  Poultry  Association,  Mansfield,  Ohio. 

Read  by  -  -  -  '        -  -  H .    C.    Pierce 


MONDAY  MORNING,  9 :00  A.  M. 
Report  of  Committee  on  Instruction  and  Outline  for  Courses  in  Poultry 

Husbandry,  -      Pro/.  James  E.  Rice 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Discussion  led  by     -  -     H.  L.  Kempster 

Michigan  Agricultural  College,   East   Lansing,   Mich. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Poultry  Husbandry. 

Lectures,  Recitations  and  Reference  Reading,  W.  A.  Lippincott 

Iowa    State    College,    Ames,    Iowa. 

Laboratory,  Practice  Courses  and  Demonstrations,  Prof.  J.  G.  Halpin 

University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 


MONDAY  AFTERNOON,  2 :00  P.  M. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Legislation,  T.  E.  Quisenberry 

Secretary  Missouri  State  Poultry  Board. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Bibliography,  Miss  Clara  Nixon 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


MONDAY  EVENING,  8 :00  p.  M. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Feeding,     -  Pro).  C.  A.  Rogers 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Address — "Poultry  Research  and  Instruction  in  Europe,'* 

Dr.  Raymond  Pearl 

University  of  Maine,  Orono,  Maine. 


TUESDAY  MORNING,  9 :00  A.  M. 
GENERAL  DISCUSSION 

What  type  of  Poultry  House  shall  we  recommend? 
What  method  of  Feeding  shall  we  recommend? 
METHOD  OF  CONDUCTING  EXAMINATIONS: 

Honor  system,  exempt  marks,  advance  questions,  examination  of  note 

books. 
What  shall  be  our  attitude  toward  the  so-called  poultry  systems? 


22  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL 

TUESDAY  AFTERNOON  2:00  P.  M. 

Marketing  of  Eggs,       -  -     A.  G.  Philips 

Purdue  University,  LaFayette,  Ind. 

Killing,  Dressing  and  Marketing  Poultry,  H.  C.  Pierce 

U.  S.   Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

Discussion  of  Deferred  New  Business 

ATTENDANCE 

Barto,  D.  O.  McAleer,  H.  A. 

Brown,  C.  E.  Opperman,  C.  L. 

Chapman,  N.  E.  Pearl,  Raymond 

Graham,  W.  R.  Phillips,  A.  G. 

Halpin,  J  .G.  Pierce,  H.  C. 

Kempster,  H.  L.  Quisenberry,  T.  E. 

Kerr,  James  P.  Rice,  J.  E. 

Lane,  D.  J.  Rider,  W.  M. 

Lippincott,  W.  A.  Schoppe,  Wm.  F. 

COMMITTEES  FOR  1911 

Instruction 

J.  G.  Halpin  A.  A.  Brigham 

D.  J.  Lambert  H.  L.  Kempster 

Feeding 

Horace  Atwood  W.  A.  Lippincott 

W.  A.  Brown  Miss  Clara  Nixon 

Homer  Jackson  C.  A.  Rogers 

W.  R.  Graham 

Breeding 

L.  J.  Cole  Raymond  Pearl 

C.  B.  Davenport  W.  R.  Graham 

A.  G.  Phillips 

Legislation 

T.  E.  Quisenberry  S.  T.  Campbell 

A.  G.  Phillips  F.  H.  Stoneburn 

Marketing 

H.  C.  Pierce  C.  L.  Opperman 

F.  C.  Elford  F.  S.  Jacoby 


ASSOCIATION    IN    POULTRY    HUSBANDRY 

Houses 

C.  A.  Rogers  C.  L.  Opperman 

Horace  Atwood  J.  S.  Jeffrey 

D.  J.  Lambert 

Bibliography 

Miss  Clara  Nixon  R.  R.  Slocum 

Victor  Fortier  J.  M.  Turpin 

Diseases  and  Parasites 

Geo.  B.  Morse  G.  E.  Gage 

P.  B.  Hadley  S.  F.  Edwards 

International  Organization 
Raymond  Pearl  H.  C.  Pierce 

J.  E.  Rice 

Investigation 

P.  B.  Hadley  W.  T.  Kirkpatrick 

A.  G.  Phillips 

Incubation 

W.  R.  Graham  James  Dryden 

Horace  Atwood  H.  W.  McAleer 

Publication 

Raymond  Pearl  H.  C.  Pierce 

James  E.  Rice  C.  A.  Rogers 


ADDRESS  OF  WELCOME  FOR  1908 

BY  JAMES  E.  RICE 

Fellow  Workers: 

It  is  a  matter  of  regret  to  all  of  us  that  Director  Bailey  is  unable  to  be 
here  to  extend  to  you  a  welcome  on  behalf  of  Cornell  University  and  the 
New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture.  We,  who  are  familiar  with 
Director  Bailey's  educational  policies,  know  that  he  is  heartily  and  en- 
thusiastically in  favor  of  developing  strong  poultry  departments  that 
shall  rank  in  scope  and  efficiency  with  other  departments  in  connection 
with  the  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations.  He  believes  that 
Poultry  Husbandry  offers  special  pedagogical  advantages  because  of  the 
large  number  of  persons  who  are  interested  in  keeping  poultry  as  a  business 
occupation.  This  enables  the  colleges  to  appeal  to  the  people,  as  he 
expresses  it,  "in  terms  of  their  daily  lives." 

If  Director  Bailey  were  here  it  is  certain  that  he  would  have  commended 
the  motive  that  has  inspired  this  meeting.  He  believes  in  the  principle  of 
"getting  together,"  of  co-operation  and  of  organization.  In  his  absence  I 
am  glad  to  extend  to  you  a  cordial  welcome.  There  are  no  traditional 
latch  strings  to  our  doors.  If  there  were  any,  they  would  hang  on  the 
outside.  You  are  invited,  instead,  to  turn  the  knob  and  "push"  wherever 
you  desire  to  go.  The  freedom  of  our  campus  and  buildings,  our  gardens 
and  our  fields  is  extended  to  you.  We  are  at  your  service.  We  welcome 
you  to  Cornell. 

RESPONSE 

BY  JAMES  E.  RICE 

Fellow  Workers: 

It  is  not  often  that  a  person  is  called  upon  to  occupy  the  unique  and 
embarrassing  position  of  being  asked,  with  only  a  few  minutes  warning, 
to  give  an  address  of  welcome  and  then  to  respond  to  his  own  welcome. 
It  was  expected  that  Professor  W.  R.  Graham  would  be  present  to  respond 
to  an  address  of  welcome  from  Director  Bailey.  A  response  to  the  address 
of  welcome  would  have  been  very  appropriate  from  Professor  Graham 
because  it  was  he  who  issued  the  call  for  a  meeting  of  teachers  and  investi- 
gators in  poultry  husbandry  to  meet  at  Madison  Square  Garden  last  year 
to  talk  over  matters  of  mutual  interest. 

Speaking  now  for  those  who  have  assembled  here  for  this  meeting,  I  am 
certain  that  I  voice  the  sentiment  of  all  when  I  say  that  the  time  has  come 
in  the  development  of  poultry  departments  when  it  is  absolutely  impera- 


BY   JAMES    E.    RICE  25 

live  that  we  who  are  charged  with  the  responsibilities  of  teaching  and 
investigating  the  subject  of  poultry  husbandry  must  co-operate  for  mutual 
development. 

Poultry  Husbandry  is  old  as  an  art  but  new  as  a  science.  Our  methods 
are  largely  those  of  rules  applicable  to  special  use,  rather  than  of  principles 
for  general  application.  We  need  more  facts  rather  than  more  opinions, 
more  results  of  experiment  and  research,  and  better  classification  of  our 
present  knowledge  in  order  that  we  may  deduct  natural  laws.  This  can 
best  be  brought  about  by  getting  together.  We  are  now  trying  to  work  out 
our  own  salvation  in  our  own  way  without  knowing  what  others  in  the 
same  occupation  are  doing.  The  sum  total  of  our  combined  knowledge  of 
poultry  husbandry  is  far  greater  than  our  individual  knowledge.  The 
conclusion  is  obvious.  We  must  compare  our  experiences,  combine  our 
knowledge,  pool  our  interests,  and  join  hands,  hearts  and  heads  for  mutual 
help. 

Poultry  Husbandry  is  one  of  the  last  of  the  important  branches  of  agri- 
culture to  be  given  attention  by  the  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment 
stations.  We  have  made  great  progress  in  the  few  years  since  the  first 
departments  were  established.  This  has  been  accomplished,  in  most 
instances,  under  trying  and  discouraging  circumstances.  The  results, 
however,  have  justified  the  effort.  Here  and  there,  persons  who  are 
responsible  for  the  organization  and  development  of  the  agricultural 
colleges  and  experiment  stations  are  coming  to  recognize  the  importance  of 
poultry  husbandry  and  are  endeavoring  to  give  it  proper  support.  Our 
meeting  can  accomplish  much  by  discussing  the  needs  of  poultry  depart- 
ments. We  should  agree,  among  ourselves,  as  to  what  constitutes  adequate 
facilities  as  to  land,  stock,  buildings,  equipment  and  teaching  or  investigat- 
ing staff,  etc.  We  will  accomplish  more  if  we  present  a  united  front.  We 
will  command  respect  only  in  proportion  as  we  respect  ourselves  and  show 
that  we  deserve  support  and  that  we  know  what  we  require  to  make  a 
department  efficient.  In  order  to  do  this  we  must  fraternize  and  organize. 

Inspiration  always  should  result  when  right  minded  people  in  a  similar 
calling  confer  to  learn  of  each  other's  successes  and  failures.  This  should 
always  be  one  of  the  most  important  purposes  of  such  a  meeting. 

The  purposes  of  this  meeting,  therefore,  I  take  it,  are: 

First :  To  arrive  at  a  better  understanding  as  to  how  we  should  teach 
and  investigate  and  extend  the  knowledge  of  better  poultry  husbandry. 

Second :     To  decide  upon  questions  of  policy  and  practice. 

Third:  To  endeavor  to  organize  as  workers  for  greater  unity  and 
efficiency;  and 


26  RESPONSE 

Fourth:  To  receive  inspiration  which  will  enable  us  to  press  forward 
with  greater  courage  and  hopefulness. 

Whether  or  not  we  shall  accomplish  all  of  these  desirable  purposes  will 
depend  upon  ourselves.  A  meeting  will  rise  only  as  high  as  the  quality 
of  its  membership.  We  are  assured  of  a  gratifying  attendance.  We  are 
bound  to  have  a  valuable  meeting. 


THE   FIELD   OF   RESEARCH   IN   POULTRY   HUSBANDRY 

BY    HORACE   ATWOOD 

Research  in  poultry  husbandry  is  concerned  with  an  industry  whose 
importance  and  extent  most  of  us  fail  to  appreciate.  This  lack  of  apprecia- 
tion is  due  principally  to  the  fact  that  the  individual  units  of  production 
are  generally  small  and  widely  scattered.  But  when  the  aggregate  is 
considered  and  it  is  found  that,  in  1907  for  example,  the  value  of  the  poultry 
products  of  the  United  States  exceeded  the  value  of  the  wheat  crop  by 
$100,000,000  then  we  can  properly  value  the  importance  and  magnitude 
of  the  industry  that  we  are  seeking  to  promote. 

Not  only  is  the  industry  whose  problems  we  are  studying  a  large  and 
important  one,  but  poultry  husbandry  as  carried  on  at  the  present  time, 
with  its  artificial  methods  and  appliances,  is  a  development  of  recent  years 
and  there  is  behind  this  business  no  such  accumulation  of  facts  and 
experiences  as  is  the  case  in  the  other  branches  of  live  stock  industry  that 
have  been  carried  on  for  a  much  longer  time.  Consequently  there  are 
numerous  new  problems  awaiting  solution,  and  new  difficulties  arising 
which  demand  the  attention  of  investigators  in  this  line  of  work.  In  fact, 
the  problems  which  we  may  select  for  study  are  so  numerous  that  there  is 
some  danger  that  we  may  spread  our  energies  over  too  wide  a  range, 
thus  interfering  with  the  quality  of  our  work.  The  ideal  is  to  concentrate 
effort  on  a  few  specific  problems  until  final  results  are  achieved  and 
presented  to  the  public. 

In  this  field  of  research  we  may  rear  many  stately  edifices,  but  if  the 
foundations  of  these  structures  are  not  well  built  they  will  tumble  down 
and  we  shall  not  only  have  lost  the  result  of  our  labors,  but  we  shall  be 
obliged  to  clear  away  the  wreckage  and  clean  up  the  ruins  before  we  can 
begin  once  more  our  efforts  for  progress. 

It  is  annoying  both  to  ourselves  and  to  our  constituents  to  be  obliged  to 
clear  away  a  wreck  due  to  building  a  house  upon  the  sand.  Therefore,  let  us 
be  doubly  careful  in  this  matter  and  resist  with  all  our  power  any  pressure 
which  may  be  brought  to  bear  on  us  for  quick  results,  and  when  we  do 
publish  the  results  of  an  investigation  let  us  be  sure,  not  only  of  the  facts 
involved,  but  also  that  our  interpretation  of  the  facts  is  the  most  logical  and 
consistent  that  can  be  given.  For  sometimes  a  set  of  facts  resulting  from 
an  investigation  can  be  explained  in  two  or  more  ways. 

In  poultry  experiments  we  are  dealing  with  life  and  its  development, 
an  extremely  difficult  and  intricate  subject,  and  one  easily  affected  by  what 


28  THE    FIELD    OF   RESEARCH 

sometimes  seem  small  and  insignificant  factors,  and  if  the  actual  carrying 
on  of  the  experiment  is  turned  over  to  an  assistant  the  experiment  may  be 
affected  by  secondary  factors  so  that  the  results  of  the  work  may  be  of  little 
or  no  permanent  value.  It  is  true  that  as  a  rule  poultry  experiments  are 
extremely  tedious  and  time  consuming  and  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
turn  over  some  of  the  details  to  an  assistant,  but  this  is  never  really  desir- 
able. An  experimenter  should  be  close  to  his  experiments. 

In  this  brief  paper  I  shall  not  attempt  to  point  out  the  particular 
problems  in  poultry  husbandry  that  are  of  especial  importance.  Ques- 
tions of  this  nature  must  be  settled  to  a  large  extent  by  each  investigator 
according  to  his  equipment,  local  conditions,  and  his  ability  to  carry  out  a 
certain  line  of  work.  But,  speaking  generally,  it  would  seem  that  the  main 
lines  of  improvement  lie  somewhat  in  the  following  directions : 

1 .  Investigations  should  be  conducted  in  the  production  of  eggs  better 
suited  for  incubation  than  those  generally  produced.     A  large  amount  of 
money  is  lost  in  this  country  each  year  in  the  incubation  of  eggs  wholly 
infertile  or  with  weak  germs.     This  should  be  remedied. 

2.  Investigations  are  needed  in  incubation  and  brooding,  so  that  a 
larger  percentage  of  chicks  can  be  brought  to  maturity. 

3.  Further  studies  are  needed  in  the  theory  of  feeding  fowls  for  the 
production  of  meat  and  eggs,  as  most  of  our  knowledge  in  this  respect  is 
vague,  and  based  on  insufficient  evidence. 

4.  The  production  and  handling  of  market  eggs  should  be  studied  with 
reference  to  the  quality  of  the  egg;   egg  preservation,  and  cold  storage. 

5.  Investigations  should  be  carried  on  concerning  diseases  and  para- 
sites, and  those  more  general  factors  which  have  to  do  with  the  efficiency  of 
fowls,  including  the  subjects  of  housing  and  management. 

In  closing,  permit  me  to  quote  a  few  words  from  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  on  Education  and  Experimentation  of  The  American  Poultry 
Association,  regarding  the  importance  of  investigations  in  poultry  hus- 
bandry. 

"The  practical  poultry  man  encounters  difficulties  at  every  turn.  Why 
are  so  many  of  the  eggs  infertile?  Why  do  so  many  chicks  die  in  the  shell? 
Why  do  so  many  chicks  die  after  incubation  and  what  is  the  remedy? 
How  should  little  chicks  be  fed  for  best  results?  How  should  one  feed 
various  breeds  during  different  seasons  for  egg  production?  What  is  the 
best  type  of  house  for  winter  egg  production— for  summer  use  in  hot 
climates?  What  is  the  cause  and  remedy  for  White  Diarrhoea,  for  roup 
and  other  serious  ailments?  How  should  one  mate  fowls  in  order  to  obtain 
certain  desired  qualities  in  the  offspring?  How  do  the  constituents  in 
various  poultry  foods  differ  in  digestibility? 


BY    HORACE   ATWOOD  29 

How  many  hens  can  be  kept  in  one  flock  to  best  advantage?  How 
many  chickens  can  be  reared  in  one  flock  most  profitably?  How  does  food 
effect  the  color  and  flavor  of  eggs?  Of  flesh?  What  is  the  best  combina- 
tion of  foods,  and  most  economical  ration  and  method  for  fattening?  What 
is  the  comparative  value  of  poultry  foods  and  various  by-products?  Is 
grit  essential?  How  should  fowls  be  fed  during  the  moulting  season? 
What  is  the  importance  of  green  food  and  free  range  as  compared  with 
bare  yards? 

Who  knows  the  chemical  and  embryological  changes  that  take  place 
within  the  egg  during  incubation?  Who  knows  the  chemical  and  physical 
changes  which  occur  in  the  keeping  of  poultry  products  inside  or  outside  of 
cold  storage?  Who  knows  whether  poultry  will  keep  better  and  be  more 
wholesome  when  drawn  or  undrawn?  Who  knows  the  life,  history  and  the 
rapidity  of  multiplication  of  external  and  internal  poultry  parasites,  several 
hundred  of  which  have  been  discovered  and  named?" 

These  are  a  few  of  the  more  important  practical  problems  now  before  us. 
They  are  all  capable  of  solution." 


INHERITANCE   OF  THE   FUNCTION   OF   EGG   PRODUCTION 

IN  THE  DOMESTIC  FOWL  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE  ON  THE 

FERTILITY  AND  HATCHING  POWER  OF  EGGS 

BY   RAYMOND    PEARL 

Introductory  Note 

The  address  which  was  given  under  the  above  title  was  based  upon 
investigations  which  have  been  reported  in  two  papers.  That  portion  of 
the  address  which  dealt  with  the  inheritance  of  egg  producing  capacity 
sensu  strictu  is  discussed  in  a  paper  which  was  given  before  the  American 
Society  of  Naturalists  in  1910  and  is  here  reprinted  in  full.  That  portion 
which  dealt  with  the  results  then  in  hand  respecting  the  inheritance 
of  the  fertility  and  hatching  power  of  eggs  has  been  printed  as  Bulletin 
168  of  the  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  with  the  title  "Data 
on  Certain  Factors  Influencing  the  Fertility  and  Hatching  of  Eggs."  Since 
this  material  is,  and  has  been  for  some  time,  available  to  the  members  of 
the  Association  there  is  no  reason  for  reprinting  it  in  whole  or  in  part  here. 

The  paper  which  follows  was  originally  published  in  the  American 
Naturalist,  Vol.  XLV,  pp.  321-345,  June,  1911. 

INHERITANCE  OF   FECUNDITY  IN  THE  DOMESTIC   FOWL1 

There  are  under  discussion  at  the  present  time  two  general  views  regard- 
ing certain  fundamental  points  in  heredity.  Each  of  these  points  of  view 
has  its  zealous  adherents.  On  the  one  hand,  is  what  may  be  designated 
the  "statistical"  concept  of  inheritance,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  concept 
of  genotypes.  By  the  "statistical"  concept  of  inheritance  is  meant  that 
point  of  view  which  assumes,  either  by  direct  assertion  or  by  implication, 
that  all  variations  are  of  equal  hereditary  significance  and  consequently 
may  be  treated  statistically  as  a  homogeneous  mass,  provided  only  that  they 
conform  to  purely  statistical  canons  of  homogeneity.  This  assumption  of 
equal  hereditary  significance  for  all  variations  is  tacitly  made  in  deducing 
the  law  of  ancestral  inheritance,  when  individuals  are  lumped  together  in  a 
gross  correlation  table.2  The  genotype  concept,  on  the  other  hand,  takes  as 
a  fundamental  postulate,  firmly  grounded  on  the  basis  of  breeding  ex- 

1  Papers  from  the  Biological  Laboratory  of  the  Maine  Experiment  Station,  No.  25, 
This  paper  was  read  at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Society  of  Naturalists  at  Ithaca. 
December,  1910. 

2  For  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  this  point  see  a  paper  by  the  present  writer 
entitled  "Biometric  Ideas  and  Methods  in  Biology;   their  Significance  and  Limitations," 
in  the  Revista  di  Scienza  (in  press). 


BY    RAYMOND    PEARL  31 

perience,  that  two  sorts  of  variations  can  be  distinguished,  namely  those 
(a)  that  are  represented  in  the  germinal  material  and  are  inherited  without 
substantial  modification,  as  in  "pure  lines,"  and  those  (6)  that  are  somatic 
and  are  not  inherited.  By  anything  short  of  the  actual  breeding  test  it  is 
quite  impossible  to  tell  whether  a  particular  variation  observed  in  the  soma 
belongs  to  the  one  category  or  to  the  other.  As  I  have  tried  to  emphasize  in 
other  places,  it  is  both  to  be  expected  on  this  view  of  inheritance,  and  is 
also  the  case  in  actual  fact,  that  the  somatic  manifestation  or  condition  of 
any  character  is  a  most  uncertain  and  unreliable  criterion  of  the  behavior 
of  that  character  in  breeding.  Finally  under  the  genotype  concept,  of 
course,  the  whole  array  of  facts  brought  out  by  Mendelian  experiments  find 
their  place. 

Now  while  certain  adumbrations  of  the  genotype  concept  have  long  been 
current  in  biological  speculations  in  regard  to  heredity,  this  general  view- 
point owes  its  grounding  in  solid  facts  primarily  to  Johannsen's  work  with 
beans  and  with  barley.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  these  cases,  as  well  as  in 
most  of  the  investigations  of  the  pure  line  theory  which  have  followed 
Johannsen's  work,  the  organisms  used  have  been  such  as  reproduced  either 
by  self-fertilization,  or  by  fission,  or  by  some  vegetative  process.  This 
brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  a  question  of  great  importance,  both 
theoretical  and  practical.  In  cases  of  dioecious  organisms,  where  a  "pure" 
pedigree  line  in  the  sense  that  such  lines  are  found  in  beans  or  in  Parame- 
cium  by  definition  can  not  exist,  has  the  genotype  concept  any  bearing  or 
significance?  In  a  general  way  it  obviously  has.  Probably  no  one  (except 
possibly  some  of  the  ultra-statistical  school)  could  be  found  who  would 
deny  that  in  general  a  distinction  is  to  be  made  between  variations  having  a 
gametic  and  those  having  merely  a  somatic  basis.  But  specifically  how 
far  has  the  genotype  concept  any  application  in  case  of  *  'non-self  ed" 
organisms?  Johannsen  in  his  "Elemente"  has  thoroughly  analyzed 
Galton's  material  and  shown  that  it  is  capable  of  a  satisfactory  and  reason- 
able interpretation  on  the  genotype  hypothesis,  and  East  and  Shull  have 
gone  far  in  the  analysis  of  genotypes  in  maize.  This,  however,  is  only  a 
beginning.  There  is  the  greatest  need  for  careful,  thorough  investigations 
of  the  inheritance  of  characters  showing  marked  fluctuating  variation  in 
organisms  having  the  sexes  separate.  Here  lies  one  of  the  crucial  fields  in 
the  study  of  inheritance  to-day.  Through  the  brilliant  results  in  Mendelian 
directions  and  from  the  study  of  really  "pure'  lines  we  are  getting  clear-cut 
ideas  as  to  the  inheritance  of  qualitatively  differentiated  characters,  such  as 
color,  pattern  and  the  like,  on  the  one  hand,  and  in  regard  to  the  inheritance 
of  quantitative  variation  in  self-fertilized  or  non-sexually  reproducing 


32  FECUNDITY    IN    THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 

organisms,  on  the  other  hand.  But  beyond  all  these  lie  the  difficult  cases 
where  in  dioecious  forms  quantitative  variations  must  be  dealt  with.  If 
these  can  be  cleared  up  and  brought  harmoniously  into  a  general  scheme  or 
view-point  regarding  inheritance,  we  shall  have  gone  a  long  way  in  the 
solution  of  this  world-old  biological  problem. 

For  some  four  years  past  the  writer  has  been  engaged  in  a  study  of  the 
inheritance  of  fecundity  in  the  domestic  fowl.  The  problem  presented 
here  is  an  important  one  from  the  practical  as  well  as  the  theoretical  stand- 
point. If  definite  and  sure  methods  of  improving  the  average  egg  produc- 
tion of  poultry  by  breeding  can  be  discovered  it  will  mean  much  to  the 
farmers  of  the  nation.  At  the  same  time  egg  production  is  a  character  in 
some  ways  well  adapted  to  furnish  definite  and  crucial  data  regarding 
inheritance.  Variations  in  egg  production  are  readily  measured,  and  can 
be  directly  expressed  in  figures. 

The  general  results  of  this  study  of  the  inheritance  of  fecundity  may  be 
said,  in  a  word,  to  be,  so  far  as  they  go,  in  entire  accord  with  the  genotype 
concept,  and  not  to  agree  at  all  with  the  "statistico-ancestral"  theory  of 
inheritance.  Indeed,  so  ill  is  the  accord  here  that  the  chief  exponent  of  the 
latter  doctrine  has  recently  attempted  to  throw  the  whole  case  out  of  court3 
by  asserting  that  fecundity  is  not  inherited  in  fowls,  and  that  the  present 
writer's  investigations  show  essentially  nothing  more  than  that.  It  will  be 
the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  present  some  figures  sufficient  to  indicate  with 
some  degree  of  probability,  I  think,  first  that  egg  production  in  fowls  is 
inherited,  and  second  that  it  is  probably  inherited  in  accord  with  the  geno- 
type concept,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  we  do  not  and  can  not  here  have 
"pure  lines"  in  the  strict  sense  of  Johannsen's  definition.  In  the  present 
paper,  owing  to  limitations  of  space,  the  whole  of  the  data  in  hand  obviously 
can  not  be  presented.  Only  a  few  illustrative  cases  can  be  given  here. 

Before  entering  upon  the  discussion  of  the  evidence  it  is  necessary  to  call 
attention  to  two  points.  The  first  is  in  regard  to  the  unit  of  measuring  egg 
production  used  in  the  work.  For  reasons  which  have  been  discussed  in 
detail  elsewhere4  the  unit  of  study  has  been  taken  as  the  egg  production  of 
the  bird  before  March  1  of  her  pullet  year.  This  "winter  production"  is  a 
better  unit  for  the  study  of  the  inheritance  of  fecundity  than  any  other 
which  can  be  used  practically.  All  records  of  production  given  in  this 
paper  are  then  to  be  understood  as  "winter"  records,  comprising  all  eggs 
laid  up  to  March  1  of  the  first  year  of  a  bird's  life.  It  may  be  said  that  the 

3  Pearson,  K.,  "Darwinism,  Biometry  and  some  Recent  Biology,  I,"  Biometrika, 
Vol.  7,  pp.  368-385,  1910. 

4  Bull.  Me.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  No.  165.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  Anim.  Ind.,  Bui.  no, 
Part  II. 


BY    RAYMOND    PEARL  33 

"normal"  mean  winter  production  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  (the  breed 
used  in  this  work)  is  fairly  indicated  by  the  8-year  average  of  the  Maine 
Station  flock.  This  average  November  1  to  March  1  production  is  36 .12 
eggs.b  This  figure  is  based  on  eight  years  continuous  trap-nesting  of  the 
flock  with  which  the  present  work  was  done,  carried  out  before  these 
investigations  were  begun. 

In  the  second  place  it  is  desirable  to  call  attention  to  some  of  the  difficul- 
ties which  attend  an  attempt  to  analyze  the  inheritance  of  the  character  egg 
production.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  fact  that  this  character 
is  not  visibly  or  somatically  expressed  in  the  male.  A  male  bird  may  carry 
the  genes  of  high  fecundity,  but  the  only  way  to  tell  whether  or  not  this  is  so 
is  to  breed  and  rear  daughters  from  him.  All  Mendelian  workers  will  agree 
that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  enough  to  unravel  gametic  complexities  in  the 
case  of  characters  expressed  somatically.  It  is  vastly  more  difficult  when 
only  one  sex  visibly  bears  the  character.  In  the  second  place  a  very 
considerable  practical  difficulty  arises  from  the  fact  that  egg  product&n  is 
influenced  markedly  by  a  whole  series  of  environmental  circumstances, 
The  greatest  of  care  is  always  necessary,  if  one  is  to  get  reliable  results,  to* 
insure  that  all  birds  shall  be  kept  under  uniform  and  good  conditions,. 
Further,  on  this  account,  it  is  necessary  to  deal  with  relatively  large  num- 
bers of  birds.  Some  of  the  important  conditions  to  be  observed  in  work 
on  fecundity  have  been  discussed  elsewhere6  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

Turning  now  to  the  results  we  may  consider  first 

THE  EFFECT  OF  SELECTION  FOR  FECUNDITY  IN  THE  GENERAL  POPULATION 
On  the  "statistico-ancestral"  viewr  of  inheritance  it  would  be  expected 
that  if  fecundity  were  inherited  at  all  this  character  would  respond  to  con- 
tinued selection.  That  is,  it  would  be  expected,  if  the  highest  layers  only 
were  bred  from  in  each  generation,  that  the  general  flock  average  would 
steadily,  if  perhaps  slowly,  increase  and  that  any  level  reached  would  be 
at  least  maintained  by  continued  selection.  In  1898  an  experiment  in 
selecting  for  high  egg  production  was  begun  at  the  Maine  station.  In  this 
experiment  only  such  females  were  used  as  breeders  as  had  laid  over  150 
eggs  in  their  pullet  year  (corresponding  roughly  to  an  average  winter  pro- 
duction of  45  or  more  eggs)  and  the  only  males  used  were  such  as  were  out 

6  It  should  be  said  that  up  to  and  including  the  winter  of  1907  only  the  November  I 
to  March  i  records  are  available  as  a  "winter"  record.  Since  that  time  the  small 
number  of  eggs  laid  before  November  I  (on  the  average  two  or  three  per  bird)  are 
included  in  the  "winter"  totals.  These,  then,  give,  as  stated,  the  total  production  up 
to  March  i. 

e  Me.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Ann.  Rept.  for  1910,  p.  100. 


34  FECUNDITY    IX    THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 

of  birds  laying  200  or  more  eggs  in  the  year.  This  experiment  was  con- 
tinued until  the  end  of  1908.  The  selection,  be  it  understood,  was  based  on 
the  egg  record  alone,  and  no  account  was  kept  of  pedigrees  or  of  genotypes. 
Every  female  with  a  record  higher  than  150  eggs  in  the  year  was  used  as  a 
breeder  regardless  of  whether  her  high  fecundity  was  genotypic  or  phseno- 
typic. 

The  results  of  this  selection  experiment  covering  a  period  of  nine  years 
have  been  fully  reported  elsewhere.7  Here  it  needs  only  to  be  said  that  the 
net  outcome  of  the  experiment  was  to  show  that  there  was  no  steady  or 
fixed  improvement  in  average  flock  production  after  the  long  period  of  selec- 
tion. There  was  no  permanently  cumulative  effect  of  the  eight  (in  the  last 
year)  generations  of  selected  ancestry.  So  far  from  there  having  been  an 
increase  there  was  actually  a  decline  in  mean  egg  production  concurrent 
with  the  selection,  taking  the  period  as  a  whole.  During  parts  of  the  selec- 
tion period,  however,  as  for  example  the  years  1899-1900  to  1901-02,  inclu- 
sive, and  the  years  1902-03  to  1905-06,  inclusive,  an  improvement  from 
year  to  year  was  to  be  noted,  but  in  each  case  the  flock  dropped  back  in 
intervening  years.  This  is  an  important  point,  the  meaning  of  which  is 
now  clear.  The  flock  average  from  year  to  year  depended  largely  upon 
whether  the  breeders  oj  the  year  before  had  had  their  high  fecundity  genetically 
represented  or  only  somatically.  In  some  years  the  selection  was  fortunate 
in  getting  nearly  all  the  breeders  from  good  (i.  e.,  "high  production") 
genotypes  or  from  good  combinations  of  genes.  In  other  years  just  the 
opposite  thing  happened:  the  high  layers  chosen  as  breeders  came  from 
low  genotypes  or  combinations  of  genes.  The  general  upshot  was  that 
while  the  selection  of  high  layers  merely  as  such  was  systematic  year  after 
year  the  result  attained  in  the  general  flock  production  was  entirely 
haphazard  and  uncertain.  This  is  exactly  what  would  be  expected  on 
the  genotype  hypothesis,  but  not  on  the  "statistico-ancestral." 

TABLE   I 
MEAN  WINTER  (NOVEMBER  i  TO  MARCH  i)  EGG  PRODUCTION  DURING  THE  SELECTION 

EXPERIMENT 

Year  Mean  Winter 

Production 

1899-1900 41.03 

1900-01 37-88 

1901-02 45.23 

1902-03 26.01 

1903-04 26.55 

1904-05 35-04 

1905-06 40.66 

1906-07 21.44 

1907-08 15.92 

7  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  Anim.  Ind.,  Bui.  1 10,  Parts  I  and  II,  1909  and  1911.  Zeitschr. 
f.  indukt.  Abst.  u.  Vererb.-Lehre,  Bd.  2,  1909,  pp.  257-275. 


BY    RAYMOND    PEARL 


The  actual  course  of  the  average  winter  egg  production  (not  hitherto 
published)  during  the  period  is  given  by  the  figures  of  Table  I  and  shown 
graphically  in  Fig.  1. 


I . 


02-O1       OVO4        04—05 
LATINO   YEAR 


05-06         06-07        07-OS 


PIO.   1. 


Diagram  showing  the  course  of  average  winter  egg  production  during 
the  period  covered  by  the  mass  selection  experiment. 


Certainly  the  first  line  of  evidence,  derived  from  a  long-continued 
experiment,  involving  more  than  2,000  individuals,  gives  no  support  to  the 
"statistico-ancestral"  theory  and  indeed  is  in  flat  contradiction  to  one  of  the 
most  fundamental  tenets  of  that  faith. 

Let  us  next  consider  the  question, 

ARE  SOMATICALLY  EQUAL  VARIATIONS  IN  FECUNDITY  OF 

EQUAL  HEREDITARY  SIGNIFICANCE? 

In  the  spring  and  summer  of  1907  were  reared  250  pullets,  all  of  which 
were  the  daughters  of  hens  that  had  laid  approximately  200  or  more  eggs  in 
the  first  year  of  their  life.  This  group  of  mothers  was  reasonably  homo- 
geneous in  respect  to  records  of  egg  production.  All  had  laid  about  the 
same  number  of  eggs.  Their  daughters  were,  however,  far  from  a  homo- 
geneous lot  with  respect  to  egg  production.8  It  is  plain  from  the  results 
obtained  in  that  experiment  that  the  egg  record  of  a  hen  is  a  most  unreliable 
criterion  of  the  probable  number  of  eggs  which  her  daughters  will  lay. 
This  is  demonstrated  by  examination  of  individual  cases.  Thus  consider 
the  two  mothers  nos.  253  and  14.  Their  winter  production  records  were 
nearly  identical  (65  and  66  eggs,  respectively).  Their  daughters'  average 
winter  productions  were  23.87  and  2.40  eggs,  respectively!  Certainly  it 
seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  gametic  constitutions  involved  in  the 

8Full  details  regarding  this  experiment  have  been  published  as  Bull.  166,  Me.  Ag. 
Exp.  Sta.,  1909.     See  particularly  Table  I. 


36 


FECUNDITY    IN    THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 


breeding  of  253  and  14  were  quite  different,  though  both  these  hens  laid  the 
same  number  of  eggs.  Again,  take  birds  nos.  386  and  911.  One  had  a 
winter  record  of  55  and  the  other  of  52  eggs.  Yet  their  daughters'  average 
winter  productions  were,  respectively,  4.88  and  27.33  eggs.  Many  more 
instances  of  this  kind  could  be  brought  forward.  Taken  together,  the 
whole  evidence  shows  beyond  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  that  the  presence  of 
high  fecundity  in  an  individual,  and  that  factor  which  makes  high  fecundity 
appear  in  the  progeny,  are  two  very  different  things,  either  of  which  may  be 
present  in  an  individual  without  the  other.  We  plainly  have  here  the 
basis  for  the  distinction  of  phseno types  and  genotypes  just  as  in  beans. 

THE  INHERITANCE  OF  EGG  PRODUCTION  IN  PEDIGREE  LINES 
Let  us  now  consider  some  of  the  evidence  that  such  things  as  genotypes 
of  fecundity  really  exist  in  fowls.     We  may  first  examine  some  representa- 
tive pedigrees  covering  four  generations  and  showing  the  occurrence  of 
high  and  low  fecundity  lines. 

As  a  typical  example  of  a  high  fecundity  pedigree  line  in  which  the  high 
fecundity  is  genotypic,  line  D5D39  may  be  considered.  In  the  presenta- 
tion of  this  and  other  pedigree  tables  the  following  conventions  are  adopted. 
The  band  numbers  of  the  birds  are  in  bold-faced  type,  and  following  the 
band  number  of  each  female,  her  winter  egg  record  is  given  in  italic  figures 
enclosed  in  parenthesis.  The  band  numbers  of  males  are  given  in  italics. 


PEDIGREE  LINE  05039 


9  E232  (69)  X  d" 555— o 


Mean  =  62 


9  F255  (48)  X  #564 

303  (64)  X  #563 
136  (48) 

347  (69}  X  d" 562  , 


Mean  =  61 


9  G  10  (100) 

14    (99) 

88    (23} 

524    (i 6) 

9  G  12    (16) 

19  (  70) 

39  (100) 

53  (  44) 

81    (34) 

85    (73) 

192    (57) 

213    (29) 

9  G  18    (61) 

27    (83) 

46  (116} 

196    (56) 

211  (  36) 

248    (67) 

9  G  11  (47) 
134  (///) 
165  (35) 
198  (39) 
506  (16) 

Mean  =57-74 


BY    RAYMOND    PEARL 


37 


This  line  is  shown  graphically  in  Fig.  2. 

Little  comment  on  this  pedigree  line  is  necessary.  We  see  a  certain  high 
degree  of  fecundity  faithfully  reproduced  generation  after  generation. 
Different  males  were  used  with  different  females,  but  in  every  case  the 
males  used  were  from  high  fecundity  lines  and  were  believed  to  carry  this 
quality  in  their  germ  cells  either  in  homozygote  or  heterozygote  condition. 

In  marked  contrast  to  the  last  example  let  us  consider  the  low  fecundity 
line  D61D168.  It  is  a  troublesome  matter  to  propagate  the  low  fecundity 
lines,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  getting  a  sufficient  number  of  eggs  during 
the  early  part  of  the  breeding  season.  The  line  D61D168  is  of  interest  not 
alone  as  an  illustration  of  a  typical  low  line,  but  also  because  there  appeared 
in  it  a  mutation,  or  something  very  like  one.  We  will  consider  here  only 
the  main  line  and  not  the  mutant. 

PEDIGREE  LINE  D6iDi68 


9  E231  (25)  X  &552 

9  F233(j2)Xo^57J—  o 

f 

9  G221    (itf) 

419    (p)Xd"55/ 

9  F165(  7)X^5^P  [ 

430    (12) 
477    (r) 

209  (38)  X  c?555—o 

Mean  =9.67 

313  (26)X  <?554  \ 
363  (//)  X  cf  550  ( 
1  *»  (  rR\ 

9  F250  (20) 
174  (21) 
9  F249  (jo) 

1O  \1O) 

163  (  p) 

Mean  X  22 

200  (12) 

141    (o) 

116(25) 

151  (n) 

24  (2j) 

Mean  =  17.5 

9  E248  (4<?)9 

This  line  is  shown  graphically  in  Fig.  4,  in  which  the  mutant  and  its 
progeny  are  also  shown. 

A  low  line  in  which  no  mutant  has  appeared,  but  in  which  also  the  mean 
production  is  not  so  low  as  in  line  D61D168  is  D65D366.  Since  the  egg 
production  has  not  been  so  low  in  the  early  part  of  the  breeding  season  with 
this  line  it  has  been  easier  to  propagate  it. 


This  was  the  mutant  referred  to.     Its  progeny  will  be  considered  later.     See  p.  335. 


S8 


FECUNDITY    IN    THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 


ZSL5 


40.5      4W        5«^      67.5     76.5 
WINTER    BOO  PRODUCTION 


Fio.  2.  Diagram  showing  range  of  variation  and  mean  fecundity  In  each 
generation  of  line  D5D39.  The  main  polygons  of  variation  give  the  distribution 
of  fecundity  In  the  general  flock  in  each  generation.  The  cross-batched  areas 
represent  the  pedigree  line,  and  the  heavy  dotted  lines  through  these  areas 
represent  the  mean  fecundity  of  the  line  In  each  generation. 


BY    RAYMOND    PEARL 


3L5      405       49t5      58.5       OS       7BJ       «i5 
WDfTRREGO  PRODUCTION 


108.5      LO5 


FIG.  3.  Diagram  showing  range  of  variation  and  mean  fecundity  in  each 
eeneration  of  line  D65D366.  Significance  of  lines  and  cross  hatching  as  In 
Fig,  2,  q.v. 


FECUNDITY    IN   THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 


PEDIGREE  LINE  0650366 


9E239(24)XcT55J 


224 


354(75)Xd"55' 


Mean  =26 


9  F309  (OD)1' 

263(44)  (9  G 

362  (43) 

216  (41)  X  <?5t9  I 

9F301    (7) 

223  (74) 

224  (42) 


9  F242  (27) 

221  (39)  X  #566 


9  F271  (37) 
9  F171  (46) 
Mean  =jj.  4 


34 

42 

56 

164 


(40) 
(5) 


This  line  is  shown  graphically  in  Fig.  3. 

In  the  examples  thus  far  given  we  have  had  to  do  with  pedigree  lines  in 
which  a  given  degree  of  fecundity  reappeared  from  generation  to  generation 
with  practically  no  change.  In  two  instances  quite  certainly,  and  possibly 
in  several  others,  a  new  and  distinct  variation  has  suddenly  appeared 
within  a  line  and  thereafter  bred  true,  thus  presenting  the  characteristic 
phenomena  of  mutation.  The  most  striking  instance  of  this  sort  occurred 
in  line  D61D168  and  may  be  given  here  in  detail.  The  main  part  of  this 
line  has  already  been  discussed  (p.  331).  It  will  be  recalled  that  it  is  a  line 
of  low  fecundity.  In  1908  there  appeared  in  it  one  individual  of  distinctly 
higher  fecundity  than  any  other  bird  in  the  large  family  of  that  year.  This 
individual  when  bred  produced  only  high  layers.  In  the  next  generation 
two  of  these  daughters  were  bred  to  males  known  to  belong  to  high  fecun- 
dity genotypes  (d?lcf554  and  566).  One  of  these  matings  unfortunately 
produced  no  adult  female  offspring.  The  other  led  to  the  production  of 
six  adult  daughters,  all  of  which  are  relatively  high  layers,  with  the  single 
exception  of  G495,  which  has  a  record  of  only  one  egg,  and  that  record  is 
doubtful.  This  bird  has  probably  never  laid  an  egg,  and  almost  certainly 
is  pathological. 

Leaving  this  bird  out  of  account  because  pathological,  the  mean  winter 
production  of  the  family  is  52.8  eggs,  very  strikingly  different  from  the 
average  (9.67  eggs)  of  the  birds  of  the  same  generation  in  the  main  low  line 
in  which  the  mutation  appeared. 

Two  other  daughters  of  the  mutant  E248  were  mated  to  o"  D31,a  bird 
known  not  only  to  belong  to  a  genotype  of  mediocre  to  low  fecundity,  but  to 

IOBird  died  during  winter  period. 


BY   RAYMOND    PEARL 


41 


22J        315        4O5        4W        5&5        673        763 
WINTER    EGG  PRODUCTION 


855       94^       M45      UiS 


Fia.  4.  Diagram  of  pedigree  line  D61D168.  The  significance  of  lines  i&  the 
same  as  in  Figs.  2  and  3,  except  that  the  mutant  line  is  double  cross  hatched.. 
For  the  sake  of  simplicity  E495  and  the  daughters  of  D31  are  omitted  in  tb» 
1910-11  generation. 


FECUNDITY    IN    THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 


be  remarkably  prepotent  in  respect  to  this  character,  so  that  practically 
regardless  of  the  females  with  which  he  has  been  mated  the  get  has  been 
uniformly  poor  in  respect  to  egg  production.  Four  adult  females  resulted 
from  the  two  matings  under  discussion.  They  have  an  average  winter 
production  of  23.75  eggs.  There  are  several  possible  explanations  of  this 
result,  but  the  most  probable  is  that  we  have  here  simply  one  more  instance 
of  the  extraordinary  prepotency  of  cfDSl. 

The  last  of  the  daughters  of  the  mutant  was  mated  to  a  cross-bred  male, 
no.  578,  and  consequently  the  progeny  can  not  fairly  be  compared  with  the 
pure  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  in  respect  to  fecundity. 

PEDIGREE  LINE  D6iDi68  (COMPLETE) 


9  D  168(33)  Xd*Z><5/ 


9  F308X7S)  X  <?554— o 


l41(5i)X<7Z>ji 


9  G  30  (45) 

62  (58) 

117  (46) 

197  (66) 

428  (49) 

495    (i) 

Mean  of  high 

line  =52.8" 

9  G204  (41) 
254  (75) 


f      9  G229  (28) 

\  458  (ii) 

Mean  of  DJI'S 

daughters  =  23 .75 


1 72  (50)  Xcf  578— Cross 

Mean  of  mutant 
(high)  line  =56. 5 


9  E231(25)X 


419 


209(j£)Xd1555- 
313 


15  (18) 
163  (19) 
200  (12) 
141  (  o) 

116(2*) 

151  (ii) 
24  (23) 
Mean  of  main  (low)  line 


9F165(7)X     569 


(     9  F250  (20) 
\  174  (21) 

9  7^249  (30) 
Mean  of  main 
(low)  line  =  22.0 


9  G221  (16) 
430  (12) 
477  (i) 

Mean  of  main 
(low)  line  =9.67 


17-5 


"Omitting  6495.     See  texs. 


BY    RAYMOND    PEARL  43 

The  facts  here  briefly  discussed  are  shown  in  the  following  table  and 
graphically  in  Fig.  4. 

It  is  apparent  from  the  table  and  the  diagram  that  the  main  line  and  the 
"mutant"  line  are  entirely  distinct.  Indeed  they  do  not  overlap  in  their 
ranges  even  excepting  only  the  pathological  individual  G495.  The 
"mutant"  pullet  E248,  for  some  reason  or  other,  possessed  the  capacity 
both  to  lay  a  relatively  large  number  of  eggs,  and  the  genes  necessary  to 
make  this  quality  appear  in  her  progeny.  Whether  this  individual  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  true  "mutation"  would  appear  to  be  largely  a  question  of 
definition.  In  the  writer's  opinion  the  most  probable  explanation  is  that 
E248  is  a  Mendelian  segregation  product.  That  is,  let  it  be  supposed  that 
both  D168  and  D61  were  heterozygous  with  respect  to  degree  of  fecundity, 
and  were  producing  in  some  (unknown)  ratio  both  "high  fecundity"  and 
"low  fecundity"  gametes.  Then  E248  may  be  supposed  to  have  originated 
from  the  union  either  of  two  "high  fecundity"  gametes  or  one  high  and  one 
low  fecundity  gamete.  She  then  would  be  either  a  DD  or  a  DR  bird,  on 
the  assumption,  which  the  facts  seem  to  support,  and  which  I  have  more 
fully  discussed  elsewhere,12  that  high  fecundity  is  dominant  over  low. 

The  subsequent  breeding  history  of  E248  indicates  that  it  was  probably 
a  DD  bird,  though  the  reasons  for  this  opinion  can  not  be  fully  gone  into 
here.  The  general  view,  recently  emphasized  by  Nilsson-Ehle,13  that 
phenomena  of  mutation  are,  in  many  cases  at  least,  merely  cases  of  Mende- 
lian segregation  has  much  evidence  in  its  favor. 

The  pedigrees  which  have  been  given  are  merely  illustrations.  Many 
other  similar  ones  might  be  cited  from  the  records  in  hand  did  space  permit. 
In  the  experiments  during  the  last  three  years  the  attempt  has  been  made 
to  propagate  separately  lines  of  high,  medium  and  low  fecundity.  In  the 
course  of  this  work  it  has  been  found  that  lines  of  high  fecundity  were  nearly 
if  not  quite  as  likely  to  have  originated  with  individuals  of  a  low  record  of 
production  as  with  those  of  a  high  record.  Similarly,  many  low  fecundity 
lines  have  originated  with  individuals  which  were  themselves  exceedingly 
high  layers.  Indeed  one  of  the  highest  winter  layers  which  have  ever 
appeared  in  the  stock  evidently  belonged  to  a  genotype  of  very  low  fecun- 
dity, since  it  has  never  been  able  to  produce  progeny  of  anything  but  the 
poorest  laying  capacity.  The  breeding  history  of  this  bird  (D352)  is  indeed 
so  interesting  that  it  may  be  briefly  discussed  here.  This  bird  in  her  pullet 
year  laid  98  eggs  between  November  10  and  March  1  and  made  a  record  for 

12  "Inheritance  in  'Blood  Lines'  in  Breeding  Animals  for  Performance,  with  Special 
Reference  to  the  '2OO-egg'  Hen,"  Rept.  Amer.  Breeders'  Assoc.,  Vol.  VI,  1911. 

13  Nilsson-Ehle,  H.,  "Kreuzungsuntersuchungen  an  Hafer  und  Weizen,"  Lunds  Univ. 
Arsskr.,  N.  F.,  Aid.  2,  Bd.  5,  Mr.  2,  1909,  pp.  1-722. 


44  FECUNDITY   IN   THE    DOMESTIC   FOWL 

the  year  of  over  200  eggs.  She  was  mated  and  produced  plenty  of  eggs 
during  the  hatching  season,  but  they  hatched  very  badly.  Only  one 
female  worth  putting  in  the  house  was  obtained.  This  pullet  (E356)  made 
a  winter  record  of  only  39  eggs,  just  about  the  general  flock  average.  E356 
was  not  mated.  Her  mother  (D352)  was  kept  over  and  bred  to  another 
male  the  next  year,  in  the  hope  that  as  a  fowl  she  might  produce  more  and 
better  chickens  than  she  had  as  a  pullet.  As  a  matter  of  fact  she  was  again 
able  to  produce  during  the  whole  breeding  season  only  one  pullet  worth 
putting  into  the  laying  house.  This  pullet  (F163)  made  a  winter  record  of 
but  11  eggs.  F163  was  bred  in  1910,  but  produced  only  one  daughter 
worth  saving.  This  daughter,  G429,  has  made  a  winter  record  of  18  eggs. 
It  would  be  hard  to  get  clearer  evidence  than  that  afforded  by  this  breeding 
history  that  D352  belonged  to  a  low  fecundity  genotype,  in  spite  of  her 
individual  high  laying  record. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  SELECTION  OF  FECUNDITY  GENOTYPES 
Let  us  now  consider  the  bearing  of  the  results  so  far  set  forth  on  the 
problem  of  selection.  Taking  first  the  question  of  the  effect  of  selection  for 
fecundity  within  a  population,  it  is  plain  that  if  different  degrees  of  fecundity 
have  a  genotypic  basis,  as  the  facts  above  presented  and  a  considerable 
mass  of  data  of  a  similar  kind,  which  owing  to  lack  of  space  can  not  be 
given  here  would  appear  to  indicate,  then  the  results  following  selection 
will  depend  entirely  upon  the  genotypic  constitution  of  the  population. 
If  high  fecundity  genotypes  are  present  they  can  be  isolated  by  selection. 
If  they  are  not  present  selection  of  high  laying  hens  will  not  change  the 
average  production  of  the  flock. 

The  aim  of  the  selection  experiments  since  1907  has  been  to  discover 
and  propagate  separately  genotypes  of  high  fecundity  and  genotypes  of  low 
fecundity,  all  the  birds  being  taken  from  the  same  general  flock.  The 
results  of  this  work  are  shown  in  the  following  table  and  in  Fig.  5.  This 
table  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  continuation  of  that  given  on  p.  327,  supra, 
which  shows  the  results  of  mass  selection  for  high  fecundity  in  the  same 
stock. 

EFFECT  OF  SELECTION  FOR  FECUNDITY  WITHIN  THE  POPULATION 

1907-08.     Mean  winter  production  of  general  population 15.92 

1908-09.     Mean  winter  production  of  all  high  fecundity  lines 54. 1 6 

1908-09.     Mean  winter  production  of  all  low  fecundity  lines 22.06 

1909-10.     Mean  winter  production  of  all  high  fecundity  lines 47-57 

1909-10.     Mean  winter  production  of  all  low  fecundity  lines  25.05 

1910-1 1.     Mean  winter  production  of  all  high  fecundity  lines. 5°-58 

1910-1 1.     Mean  winter  production  of  all  low  fecundity  lines  17.00 


BY    RAYMOND    PEARL 


01-02         02-03         03-04 


\ 


04-05         05-06 
LAY  I  NO    YBAK 


«-09         0»-10 


FIG.  5.  Showing  the  effect  of  selecting  high  and  low  fecundity  on  a  geno- 
typic  basis.  The  solid  line  denotes  means  of  all  "  high  lines  " ;  the  dotted  line 
means  of  all  "  low  lines."  Up  to  1907-08  the  attempt  had  been  to  increase  egg 
production  by  breeding  merely  from  the  highest  layers,  regardless  of  pedigrees. 
In  1907  and  subsequent  years  the  attempt  has  been  to  isolate  genotypes  of  high 
and  low  fecundity  which  shall  breed  true,  each  to  Its  own  type. 

The  results  indicate  the  effectiveness  of  this  method  of  selection.  It 
should  be  understood,  of  course,  that  only  those  pedigree  lines  are  included 
in  the  high  line  averages  which  uniformly  in  each  generation  show  high 
fecundity.  A  similar  consideration  applies  to  the  low  line  averages. 

Let  us  now  consider  briefly  the  question  of  the  effectiveness  of  selection 
within  the  genotype.  According  to  the  "pure  line"  concept  we  should 
not  expect  selection  of  high  or  low  individuals  belonging  to  the  same  geno- 
type to  produce  any  effect,  except  in  cases  where  segregation  has  occurred 
and  the  selected  individuals  are  really  gametically  different,  though  having 
the  same  pedigree.  An  example  of  this  sort  has  been  given  in  the  case  of 
line  D61D168  (cf.  p.  331,  supra).  The  ineffectiveness  of  selection  within 
the  line  when  something  of  this  sort  does  not  occur  is  illustrated  by  line 
D56D407.  In  the  Fx  generation  in  this  line  there  were  four  birds,  of  which 
three  were  good  layers  and  one  was  a  poor  layer.  Two  of  the  good  layers 
and  the  poor  layer  were  bred.  Large  families  were  reared  in  F2  and  F3. 
The  average  results  in  the  three  generations  are  given  in  the  following  table : 

EFFECT  OF  SELECTION  OF  GOOD  AND  POOR  WINTER  LAYERS  IN  THE  SAME  LINE,  0560407 

Generation  F1  Fz  Fa 

Mean  winter  record  of  good  layers  and  their  progeny 76.0         46.7          35-57 

Mean  winter  record  of  poor  layers  and  their  progeny 26.0          52.0         36. 7514 

14If  one  family  of  four  birds,  which  ought  not  in  fairness  to  be  included  here  be- 
cause they  were  extremely  inbred  (brother-sister  mating)  in  connection  with  another 
experiment,  is  excluded,  this  average  becomes  49.0. 


46  FECUNDITY    IN    THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 

It  is  evident  that  selection  within  the  line  here  was  quite  without  effect. 

Another  example  of  the  same  thing  from  line  D31D447  may  be  given  by 
way  of  further  illustration.  In  this  line  there  was  in  the  F:  generation  a 
family  of  ten  daughters.  Of  these  some  were  very  good  and  some  were  poor 
layers.  All  were  bred.  The  mean  results  are  shown  in  the  next  table. 

EFFECT  OF  SELECTION  OF  GOOD  AND  POOR  WINTER  LAYERS  IN  THE  SAME  LINE,  0310447 

Generation  F,  F2  FS 

Mean  winter  record  of  good  layers  and  their  progeny 62.5        23.75          22.00 

Mean  winter  record  of  poor  layers  and  their  progeny 32.0        28.75          I4-75 

Here  again  it  is  plain  that  selection  within  the  line  was  without  effect. 
Many  more  examples  of  the  same  sort  might  be  given  from  the  records  did 
space  permit.  In  general  there  is  no  evidence  whatever  that  the  selection 
of  individuals  of  different  laying  records,  but  belonging  to  the  same  fecun- 
dity genotype,  produces  any  definite  or  permanent  effect  whatever. 

DISCUSSION  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

Taking  into  consideration  all  the  facts  which  have  come  out  of  this 
study,  one  is  led  to  the  following  view  as  to  the  composition  of  a  flock  of 
fowls  in  respect  to  fecundity.  In  the  average  flock  we  may  presume  that 
there  will  probably  be  represented  a  number  of  fecundity  genotypes,  some 
high,  some  low,  and  some  intermediate  or  mediocre.  In  an  ordinary  flock 
these  genotypes  will  be  greatly  mixed  and  intermingled.  Further,  the 
facts  in  hand  indicate  that  the  range  of  variation  in  fecundity  within  the 
genotype  is  relatively  very  large,  nearly  as  great,  in  fact,  as  in  the  general 
population.  Thus  while  fecundity  genotype  means  may  be  and  usually  are 
perfectly  distinct,  there  is  much  overlapping  of  individuals  in  the  different 
lines.  In  consequence  it  results  that  the  egg  record  of  an  individual  bird 
is  of  almost  no  value  in  helping  to  tell  in  advance  of  the  breeding  test  to 
what  fecundity  genotype  it  belongs.  Essentially  this  same  fact  has  been 
brought  out  in  all  of  the  work  which  has  been  done  with  pure  lines.  The 
only  difference  in  the  present  case  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  range  and  degree 
of  variation  within  the  line  appears  to  be  relatively  greater  in  the  case  of 
fecundity  than  in  the  case  of  most  characters  hitherto  studied,  as,  for 
example,  size  relations  in  beans  or  Paramecium. 

The  most  serious  difficulty  which  confronts  one  in  the  attempt  to  analyze 
the  inheritance  of  a  character  like  fecundity  lies  in  the  almost  inextricable 
mingling  of  genotypes  in  the  great  majority  of  individuals.  This,  of 
course,  is  a  direct  consequence  of  the  manner  of  reproduction  .The  germ 
plasm  of  two  separate  individuals  must  unite  to  form  a  new  individual.  By 


BY   RAYMOND    PEARL  47 

prolonging  incestuous  mating  one  may  in  theory  come  indefinitely  close  to 
reproductive  purity,  but  in  practise  even  this  is  extremely  difficult,  if  not 
impossible  of  accomplishment  on  any  large  scale  or  through  any  long  period 
of  time.  The  fact  simply  is  that  a  "pure  line"  in  the  strict  sense  of  Johann- 
sen15  can  not  by  definition  exist  in  an  organism  reproducing  as  the  domestic 
fowl  does.  This,  however,  by  no  means  indicates  that  the  inheritance  of 
fecundity  does  not  rest  on  a  genotype  basis,  or,  in  other  words,  that  fowls 
do  not  carry  definite  genes  for  definite  degrees  of  fecundity. 

We  touch  here  upon  an  important  point;  namely,  the  relation  of  the 
mode  of  reproduction  to  the  mode  of  inheritance.  As  one  reflects  upon  the 
matter  it  becomes  clear  that  it  is  only  in  the  sense  of  a  reproductive  line  that 
we  can  not,  by  definition,  have  pure  lines  in  organisms  where  the  sexes  are 
separate.  It  is  perfectly  possible  to  have  a  line  of  such  organisms  in  which 
all  the  individuals  are  gametically  pure  with  reference  to  any  particular 
character.  For  example,  it  is  the  simplest  of  matters  to  establish  a  line  of 
horses  pure  in  respect  to  chestnut  coat  color.  Any  individual  in  such  a  line 
mated  to  any  other  will  never  produce  anything  but  chestnut  offspring.  So 
similarly  with  any  other  character,  it  is  only  necessary  to  obtain  homozy- 
gous  individuals  in  respect  to  any  character  in  order  to  form  a  gametically 
pure  strain  with  reference  to  that  character. 

It  must  further  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  that  a  reproductive  "pure  line" 
(in  the  sense  of  Johannsen's  definition)  may  be  made  up  of  individuals  not 
gametically  pure  (i.  e.),  homozygous.  Thus  suppose  one  crosses  a  yellow 
and  a  green  pea  and  then  takes  an  F2  heterozygote  individual  seed  which 
originated  from  a  self -fertilized  FT  individual  as  the  "single,  self -fertilized 
individual"  with  which  to  start  a  line.  The  individual  which  starts  such  a 
line  arose  by  self-fertilization  and  is  selfed  to  produce  progeny  and  would 
thus  fulfil  every  requirement  of  a  reproductive  "pure  line"  as  defined  by 
Johannsen.  Yet  it  would  produce  both  yellow  and  green  offspring.  On 
the  other  hand,  as  already  pointed  out,  a  line  which  is  not,  and  from  the 
nature  of  its  mode  of  reproduction  never  can  be,  reproductively  "pure" 
may  be  gametically  so  (i.  e.,  have  none  but  homozygous  individuals  with 
respect  to  any  character) . 

We  then  see  that  the  fact  that  in  fowls  the  sexes  are  separate  and  we 
therefore  can  not  have  reproductive  "pure  lines"  gives,  per  se,  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  fecundity  is  not  inherited  on  a  genotypic  basis.  We  have 
to  consider  the  problem  of  genetic  or  gametic  purity.  Do  we  have  homozy- 


15Johannsen's  definition  is  as  follows:  "Mit  einer  reinen  Linie  bezeichne  ich 
Individuen,  welche  von  einen  einzelnen  selbstbefruchtenden  Individuum  abstammen." 
("Ueber  Erblichkeit  in  Populationen  und  reinen  Linien,"  p.  9.) 


48  FECUNDITY    IN    THE    DOMESTIC    FOWL 

gote  lines  in  such  cases  as  those  discussed  in  this  paper?  It  plainly  is  the 
fact  that  one  can  get  lines  of  birds  which,  broadly  speaking,  will  breed  true 
(perhaps  throwing  occasionally  a  few  individuals  not  true  to  the  type  of  the 
line)  to  definite  degrees  of  fecundity.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  milk 
production  in  dairy  cattle,  speed  in  race  horses,  etc.  What  are  these  lines 
gametically?  Theoretically  the  formation  of  gametically  pure  (homozy- 
gote)  lines  with  respect  to  definite  degrees  of  fecundity  is  simple.  Practi- 
cally it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  do  this,  owing  to  the  fact  that  (a)  the 
character  studied  is  not  expressed  in  the  male,  and  (6)  it  is  subject  to  a  wide 
fluctuating  variability  caused  by  environmental  conditions.  The  question 
as  to  the  gametic  constitution  of  the  fecundity  lines  here  discussed  obviously 
can  not  be  answered  finally  now.  It  is  a  matter  for  much  further  research. 
One  may,  however,  form  a  general  conception  of  the  probable  gametic 
constitution  of  such  lines,  which  has  much  evidence  in  its  support.  The 
essential  points  in  such  a  conception  are: 

1.  Probably  no  line  yet  obtained  is  absolutely  pure  gametically  in 
respect  to  fecundity.     It  represents  a  mixture  of  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
fecundity  genes. 

2.  Lines  which  breed  reasonably  true  to  a  definite  degree  of  fecundity 
may  in  most  cases  be  taken  to  be  made  up  of  individuals  bearing  a  pre- 
ponderant number  of  genes  of  the  particular  degree  of  fecundity  to  which 
the  line  breeds  true,  so  that  in  gametogenesis  a  great  majority  of  the  gametes 
formed  carry  only  these  genes.     They  also  carry  some  genes  of  higher,  or 
lower  fecundity,  or  both  kinds.     When  individuals  of  a  definite  (e.  g.y 
"high")  line  thus  constituted  are  bred  together  the  majority  of  the  offspring 
will,  purely  as  a  matter  of  chance,  be  produced  by  the  union  of  two  high 
fecundity  gametes.     It  is  quite  possible  that  with  families  of  the  size 
obtained  with  poultry  nearly  or  quite  every  individual  produced  in  the  line 
for  several  successive  generations  may  be  of  this  kind.     In  the  long  run, 
however,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  a  small  number  of  "off"  individuals  will 
appear  in  the  line.     These  originate  by  the  chance  union  of  two  low 
fecundity  genes,  or  by  the  union  of  a  "high"  gene  with  a  "low"  gene  of 
great  potency  (as  in  the  case  of  D31,  cf.  p.  335). 

3.  The  degree  to  which  such  a  line  will  breed  true  will  depend  upon 
the  proportion  of  genes  of  one  type  (or  of  very  similar  types)  present.     The 
higher  such  proportion  the  less  frequently  will  the  "off"  individual  segregate 
out.     The  practical  goal  to  be  worked  towards  is,  of  course,  to  obtain 
several  lines  not  closely  related,  but  all  made  up  only  of  individuals  homozy- 
gous  with  respect  to  either  high  or  low  or  any  other  definite  degree  of 
fecundity. 


BY   RAYMOND    PEARL  49 

Whether  a  given  degree  of  fecundity  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  single  unit 
character,  in  the  Mendelian  sense,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  as  a  complex 
dependent  upon  a  particular  combination  of  separately  segregable  unit 
characters,  can  not  yet  be  determined.  Every  one  must  recognize  the 
fundamental  importance  of  the  investigations  of  Nilsson-Ehle,  Baur  and 
East,  which  have  shown  that  many  characters  which  at  first  glance  do  not 
appear  to  conform  to  any  determinate  law  of  inheritance  are  really  com- 
plexes, formed  by  the  combination  of  a  number  of  unit  characters,  each  of 
which  segregates  and  otherwise  behaves  in  a  perfectly  regular  and  lawful 
manner.  There  are  some  facts  which  indicate  that  high  fecundity  is  a 
character  of  this  kind,  but  it  will  require  prolonged  analysis  to  decide  this, 
because  of  the  numerous  practical  difficulties  which  attend  the  study  of 
fecundity. 

A  great  help  in  this  analysis,  as  well  as  a  contributory  line  of  evidence  of 
much  weight  in  supporting  the  general  conception  of  the  manner  of  inheri- 
tance of  fecundity  set  forth  above,  is  derived  from  the  study  of  crosses 
between  breeds  of  poultry  in  which  high  and  low  degrees  of  fecundity  are 
definite  breed  characters.  Studies  of  this  sort  carried  out  at  the  Maine 
station  indicate  that  the  relatively  high  fecundity  characteristic  of  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  breed  is  inherited  as  a  sex-limited  character.  In 
this  respect  it  behaves  like  a  simple  unit  character,  but  this  does  not 
necessarily  prove  that  it  is  not  a  complex.  More  data  are  needed  to 
settle  this  point.  Of  much  significance  is  the  fact  that,  whether  simple  or 
complex,  fecundity  is  shown  by  these  experiments  in  cross  breeding  to  be  a 
character  resting  on  a  definite  gametic  basis. 

In  conclusion,  I  think  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  the  investigations  here 
reported  show  in  the  first  place  that  different  degrees  of  fecundity  are 
inherited  in  the  domestic  fowl,  and  in  the  second  place,  that  in  all  respects 
wherein  it  has  been  possible,  considering  the  inherent  difficulties  of  the 
material  and  the  character  dealt  with,  to  make  the  test,  the  method  of  this 
inheritance  is  in  entire  accord  with  Johannsen's  concept  of  genotypes. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  INVESTIGATION, 
AUGUST,  1909 

PRESENTED    BY    PHILIP    B.    HADLEY 
READ   BY   WM.  F.  KIRKPATRICK 

The  Committee  of  Investigation  has  attempted  to  ascertain  the  nature 
and  distribution  of  poultry  investigation  throughout  the  United  States, 
chiefly  with  reference  to  the  work  of  the  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experi- 
ment Stations.  Reports  were  not  received  from  five  stations.  The  details 
ascertained  from  the  others  are  as  follows1: 


Breeding 

Feeding 

Housing 

Incuba- 
tion 

Brood- 
ing 

Methods  and 
technique 

Diseases 

Miscel- 
laneous* 

£ 

g 

.2 

g 

•2 

d 

3 

•3 

1 

1 

1 

-a 

u 

li 

& 

1 

ft 

3 

8, 

1 

1 

bo 

rt 

1 

§8 

i 

I 

S 

3 

1 

£ 

£ 

10 

2 

2 

2 

2 

6 

i 

7 

7 

5 

2 

2 

6 

5a 

Respectfully  submitted, 

PHILIP  B.  HADLEY, 
JAMES  G.  HALPIN, 
J.  P.  LANDRY. 


*June  30,  1909,  25  of  the  49  Experiment  Stations  were  investigating  poultry  problems; 
of  the  remaining  24,  9  signified  their  intention  of  taking  up  such  work  the  following  year. 
"Under  this  heading  comes  the  following  problems  each  of  which  is  being  studied  by 
a  single  station: 

i)     The  value  of  the  male  in  the  (scrub)  flock. 
Moulting  of  poultry,  rate  of  feathering,  etc. 
A  study  of  vitality  in  stock. 
Influence  of  feeding  upon  color  of  stock. 
(5)     Influence  of  light  upon  (a)  laying;    (b)  development  of  chickens, 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  INVESTIGATION  OF  THE 
PROBLEMS  OF  POULTRY  CULTURE* 

PRESENTED   BY    PHILIP  B.    HADLEY 
READ    BY   WM.    F.    KIRKPATRICK 

Since  the  time  when  the  investigation  of  poultry  problems  was  first 
taken  up  in  connection  with  Experiment  Station  work,  the  field  of  experi- 
mentation and  of  research  has  been  greatly  extended.  At  the  present  time 
the  subjects  of  investigation  are  numerous,  but  every  year  are  being 
increased  in  number  as  well  as  made  more  valuable  by  reason  of  greater 
intensity  of  effort. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  it  has  appeared  desirable  to  your  Committee  on 
Investigation  to  make  an  attempt  to  obtain  concise  data  regarding  the 
general  nature  of  the  poultry  investigation  which  is  being  carried  on  in  the 
different  experiment  stations  of  the  United  States  and  Canada;  and  to 
ascertain,  if  possible,  the  nature  of  the  distribution  of  these  problems  in 
different  parts  of  the  country.  This  has  been  done  with  the  belief  that  the 
acquisition  of  such  data  might  serve  as  a  basis  for  more  valuable  co-opera- 
tion and  united  effort  between  individual  investigators.  It  appears 
unfortunately  true  that  such  co-operation  or  unity  has  not,  in  the  past, 
characterized  a  great  amount  of  the  work  of  widely  separated  investigators 
of  poultry  problems.  On  the  other  hand  there  has  often  appeared  a  lamen- 
table narrowness  of  horizon  on  the  part  of  many  who  have  appeared  to  be 
actuated  by  the  belief  that,  the  surest  way  to  secure  advantageous  results 
from  their  investigational  efforts,  was  to  closely  foster  their  own  problems, 
and  to  mention  them  in  detail  only  to  those  who  did  not  have  an  actual 
working  interest  in  them.  Such  pettiness  in  work  of  a  broadly  scientific 
character  is  not  uncommon,  and  is  especially  to  be  avoided;  indeed,  it  must 
be  avoided  if  the  investigations  in  poultry  problems  are  to  result  in  the 
fullest  measure  of  benefit  to  the  poultry  industry  on  the  one  hand,  and  to 
pure  science  on  the  other. 

As  being  placed  against  this  attitude  it  is  the  belief  of  your  Committee 
that  one  of  the  highest  aims  in  the  formation  of  this  association  is  to 
stimulate  the  free  interchange  of  ideas  on  subjects  which  are  of  fundamental 
interest  to  the  poultry  men  of  this  country. 

In  attempting  to  outline  the  field  of  poultry  investigations,  it  is  first 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  different  types  of  investigational  work. 

*Report  of  the  Committee  on  Investigation  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1909. 


PRESENT    STATUS    OF    POULTRY    INVESTIGATION 

At  the  outset,  although  this  classification  has  certain  disadvantages,  we 
may  separate  the  whole  field  into,  first,  that  of  pure  experimental  work; 
secondly,  that  of  pure  research;  and  between  these  two  there  is  a  sort  of 
investigation  which  may  be  either  experimental,  or  research,  depending 
upon  the  point  of  view  and  the  ultimate  aims  of  the  investigator.  It 
should  not  be  inferred  from  this  distinction  that,  as  is  so  often  said,  one 
is  necessarily  a  higher  type  of  investigation  than  the  other.  In  all  cases  the 
pursuit  of  true  research  problems  must  involve  much  work  which  is  of  the 
experimental  order.  Indeed,  the  majority  of  so-called  "research  problems" 
must  have  their  basis  in  the  results  of  a  greater  or  small  number  of  single 
experiments.  Whether  or  not  such  experimentation  can  be  built  up  into 
a  piece  of  research  depends  largely  upon  what  the  aims  of  the  investigation 
as  a  whole,  may  be;  and  to  what  degree  the  results  of  the  single  experiments 
are  used  as  the  means  for  reaching  these  ends,  and  for  advancing  toward 
the  solution  of  still  deeper  problems.  To  state  an  example:  To  ascertain, 
by  means  of  feeding  broiler  chicks  several  different  nitrogenous  feeding 
stuffs,  what  combination  produces  the  quickest  growth,  or  the  highest  egg- 
production  is  experimentation.  But  to  ascertain  what  the  reasons  for  such 
differences  may  be,  for  instance  whether  they  are  due  to  mineral  con- 
stituents, to  the  difference  in  fats,  or  to  the  peculiar  proteids,  this  consti- 
tutes research. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  at  the  present  time  in  which  category  most  of  the 
investigational  work,  to  be  mentioned  in  this  report,  belongs.  For  the 
sake  of  convenience  the  fields  have  been  first  divided,  as  already  stated, 
into  the  purely  experimental  and  into  the  true  research  work.  Into  the 
former  class  has  been  placed  work  in  incubation,  brooding,  housing,  feeding, 
much  of  the  work  in  breeding,  and  investigations  regarding  methods  and 
technique  in  poultry  husbandry. 

In  the  latter  group  may  be  placed  the  study  of  definite  problems  in 
regard  to  inheritance,  nutrition,  poultry  diseases,  and  other  problems  deal- 
ing with  subjects  of  a  physiological  nature,  such  as  those  of  egg  fertility, 
the  vitality  of  stock,  the  physiology  of  reproduction  and  digestion. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  those  distinctions  are  by  no 
means  rigid;  and  that  the  work  in  feeding,  for  instance,  while  appearing 
to  be  only  of  the  experimental  order,  may  in  certain  cases,  be  the  basis  of 
other  work  which  is  more  closely  allied  to  true  research;  and  that  similarly 
work  on  poultry  diseases,  while  it  should  represent  true  research,  is  fre- 
quently nothing  more  than  purely  experimental. 

As  a  result  of  reviewing  the  answers  to  the  questions  which  your  Com- 
mittee has  sent  to  the  various  experiment  stations,  it  is  often  impossible  to 


BY    PHILIP    B.    HADLEY  53 

state  which  order  of  investigation  is  represented  by  the  work  in  question, 
although  it  is  apparent  that  at  present  more  belong  to  the  purely 
experimental  than  to  the  research  group. 

With  this  brief  introduction  we  may  then,  turn  our  attention  to  the 
various  branches  of  investigational  work  in  poultry  husbandry  that  are 
being  conducted  by  the  experiment  stations  at  the  present  time.  First  it 
should  be  said  that  notwithstanding  persistent  effort,  no  replies  regarding 
the  position  of  poultry  investigations  have  been  received  from  several  states. 
All  the  others  have  responded  promptly,  though  in  many  instances  too 
briefly. 

In  the  survey  of  these  replies,  the  first  point  of  interest  lies  in  the  number 
of  institutions  in  the  United  States,  that  are  carrying  on  any  definite 
investigation  of  poultry  problems.  It  here  appears  that  slightly  more  than 
half — or  twenty-five — of  the  forty -eight  stations  are  at  the  time  of  writing 
actively  engaged  in  work  along  these  lines.  The  states  that  are,  so  far  as 
can  be  ascertained,  carrying  on  no  work  with  regard  to  poultry  include 
the  following :  Alabama,  Arkansas,  California,  Delaware,  Florida,  Georgia, 
Idaho,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Montana,  Nebraska,  New  Hampshire, 
New  Jersey,  New  Mexico,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  South  Carolina,  South  Dakota, 
Tennessee,  Texas,  Vermont,  Washington,  Wisconsin,  and  Wryoming. 

In  connection  with  this  point,  it  is  gratifying  to  note  that  of  these 
twenty-four  stations,  in  which  at  the  present  time,  no  poultry  investiga- 
tions are  being  conducted,  nine,  including  Arkansas,  Colorado,  Idaho, 
Montana,  New  Jersey,  Mew  Mexico,  Oklahoma,  Wisconsin  and  Wyoming, 
have  expressed  an  intention  of  taking  up  such  work  either  as  soon  as  funds 
are  available  for  the  purpose,  or  a  suitable  man  can  be  found.  In  most 
cases  it  appears,  however,  that  it  is  funds,  not  men,  that  are  not  available. 
The  fact  that  these  nine  institutions  thus  signify  their  intention  of  under- 
taking the  study  of  poultry  problems  in  the  near  future  is  surely  suggestive 
of  the  increasing  interest  that  is  now  being  taken  in  poultry  husbandry; 
and  of  the  weighty  significance  of  many  of  the  problems  included 
therein. 

Omitting  for  the  present,  the  work  of  the  five  stations,  from  which  it 
has  been  impossible  to  secure  data  regarding  the  poultry  work,  attention 
may  be  turned  to  a  review  of  what  is  being  done  in  other  institutions. 

Of  course  most  of  the  work  which  is  now  being  done  centers  about  the 
subjects  of  breeding,  feeding  and  housing.  In  most  instances,  however, 
there  is  some  definitely  ulterior  aim  in  the  work;  and  this  is  usually  to 
observe  the  influence  of  these  factors  upon  vitality,  egg-production,  meat 
production  or  type. 


54  PRESENT  STATUS  OF  POULTRY  INVESTIGATION 

It  is  at  once  apparent  that  more  work  is  being  accomplished  under  the 
head  of  breeding  and  feeding  experiments,  than  in  all  the  other  divisions  of 
poultry  investigation  combined.  It  appears,  moreover,  that  while  the 
breeding  for  egg  production  is  the  subject  of  investigation  in  ten  instances, 
breeding  for  meat  production  is  being  investigated  at  only  two  stations, 
although  one  other  station  is  studying  the  correlation  between  conformation 
and  meat  production  as  affected  by  breeding. 

In  the  case  of  feeding  experiments,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  apparent 
that  six  stations  are  engaged  in  feeding  for  meat  production,  but  that,  so  far 
as  can  be  learned  at  the  present  time,  only  two  institutions  are  breeding  for 
type.  It  should  be  said  that  the  work  of  Davenport,  at  Cold  Springs 
Harbor,  is  not  included  in  this  list.  Furthermore,  at  one  other  station, 
although  no  definite  poultry  investigations  are  under  way,  the  horticulturist 
is  carrying  on  independently  some  very  interesting  experiments  in  making 
reciprocal  crosses  between  fowls,  with  a  view  to  throwing  more  light  upon 
some  of  the  problems  of  sex  heredity.  Generally  speaking,  it  may  be  said 
that  most  of  the  work  which  is  now  being  done  in  poultry  breeding  and 
feeding  belongs  to  the  purely  experimental  order;  that  is,  very  little  of  it  is 
of  a  sort  calculated  to  throw  light  upon  the  deeper  principles  which  underlie 
the  phenomena  referable  to  both  these  subjects.  This  cannot,  by  any 
means,  be  called  a  regrettable  condition,  as  some  would  have  us  believe. 
There  is  room  in  the  whole  field  of  poultry  investigation  for  work  of  a 
simple  testing  character  for  a  long  time  to  come.  What  we  need  first  is 
facts  upon  which  we  can  rely,  facts  regarding  feeding  stuffs  and  feeding 
methods,  regarding  definite  crosses  and  their  result,  facts  about  diseases  and 
disease  parasites.  A  substantial  body  of  facts,  from  which  to  work  upward 
is  the  surest  basis  for  all  higher  types  of  scientific  investigation. 

There  appears  to  be,  however,  in  the  field  of  poultry  investigation 
relating  to  breeding  and  feeding,  ample  opportunity  for  the  study  of 
problems  of  heredity  in  poultry.  It  is  true  that  many  of  these  problems 
are  more  easily  studied  with  other  birds  and  mammals,  but  there  are  many 
problems  of  heredity,  for  the  working  out  of  which,  poultry  is  especially 
well  adapted.  Furthermore,  as  has  been  shown,  another  phase  of  poultry 
investigation  is  especially  open  and  promising,  that  is,  breeding  for  meat 
production.  It  is  probable  that  the  next  few  years  will  see  much  valuable 
work  accomplished  by  the  small  number  engaged  in  this  line  of  work. 

When  we  come  to  the  subjects  of  incubation  and  brooding,  it  appears 
that,  while  seven  institutions  are  engaged  in  studying  the  former,  only 
five  are  working  at  the  latter.  This  indicates  a  diminishing  interest  in  this 
line  of  investigational  work,  much  of  which  has  undoubtedly  been  forsaken 


BY    PHILIP   B.    HADLEY  55 

for  the  more  alluring  problems  in  breeding  and  feeding.  It  cannot  be 
believed,  however,  that  all  that  can  be  said  about  incubation  and  brooding, 
has  been  said.  With  the  greater  increase  in  the  poultry  industry  in  this 
country,  and  the  necessity  of  winter  production  of  immense  numbers  of 
birds  to  supply  city  markets,  the  problem  of  artificial  brooding  is  becoming 
of  an  ever  increasing  importance  to  all  large  poultry  raisers. 

Closely  related  to  this  subject,  since  so  great  mortality  is  often  present 
among  artificially  brooded  chicks,  is  that  which  we  may  call,  for  the  lack  of 
a  better  term,  Poultry  Hygiene;  and  we  may  define  this  as  the  science 
which  deals  with  the  laws  of  health  of  the  chicks.  It  is  a  study  of  the 
young  birds'  surroundings,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  in  what  measure 
these  are  conducive  to  health  or  to  disease.  Disease  is  not,  strictly  speak- 
ing, caused  by  micro-organisms.  In  most  instances,  whether  in  human 
beings  or  in  chicks,  disease  is  due  as  much  to  a  weakened  vitality  as  to  out- 
side infectious  agents  or  materials.  Disease  is  merely  an  offset  to  the 
normal  equilibrium  of  physiological  conditions,  which  we  call  health, 
either  because  the  vitality  is  too  weak,  or  because  some  outside  stimulus  is 
too  strong.  In  a  great  number  of  cases  young  birds  in  a  weakened  condi- 
tion succumb  to  the  action  of  organisms  which  are  constantly  present  in  well 
birds.  The  problem  of  practical  poultry  hygiene  would,  then,  have  for  its 
aim  the  study  of  all  those  conditions  which  make  for  or  against  the  vitality 
and  health  of  poultry.  It  is  a  problem  whose  aspects  extend  into  every 
phase  of  poultry  work,  from  the  formation  of  the  egg  in  the  oviduct  to  the 
final  disposal  of  the  bird  in  the  market.  It  has  to  do,  first,  with  the  problem 
of  egg  infection,  either  with  the  coccidia  which  cause  Blackhead  and  White 
Diarrhea,  or  with  other  microorganisms  which  cause  the  rotting  of  eggs  and 
the  premature  death  of  young  chicks  in  the  shell.  It  may  have  to  do  with 
the  questions  of  incubation  including  the  effect  of  moisture,  of  carbon 
dioxide,  of  ventilation,  of  intermittant  versus  steady  heat.  Later,  it 
includes  consideration  of  methods  of  brooding;  and  the  relation  thereto  of 
different  methods  of  feeding  and  heating;  also  questions  of  infection  through 
dust  or  through  contaminated  food  or  water.  Furthermore,  the  practical 
poultry  hygiene  should  include  a  study  of  the  hygiene  of  the  poultry  yard, 
its  location,  drainage,  its  constant  or  intermittent  use,  methods  of  cleansing, 
disinfecting,  etc.,  together  with  methods  (especially  in  large  poultry  plants) 
whereby  certain  divisions  of  the  yard  can  be  quickly  and  effectively  isolated 
from  the  rest  in  the  case  of  such  an  epidemic  as  fowl  cholera.  The  writer 
has  recently  been  called  to  inquire  into  a  certain  poultry  epidemic  in  a 
neighboring  state  in  which  a  large  poultryman  lost  three  thousand  birds 
within  two  months  through  fowl  cholera,  and  was  advised  to  kill  the  balance 


56  PRESENT   STATUS   OF   POULTRY   INVESTIGATION 

^>f  a  flock  of  forty-five  hundred.  If,  at  the  time  this  epidemic  broke  out, 
"one  single  section  of  the  poultry  plant  could  have  been  effectively  isloated 
from  all  the  rest,  the  loss  would  probably  have  been  less  than  five  hundred, 
*or  at  most,  a  thousand  birds.  Such  methods  could  have  been  devised  and 
fcwt  into  effect  for  fifty  dollars.  The  poultry  man  has  now  lost  five  thousand 
fowls  and  also  his  trade.  It  is  the  part  of  Poultry  Hygiene  to  study  into  all 
these  matters  which  make  for  the  well  being  of  poultry,  both  to  maintain 
their  own  vitality  and  by  all  possible  means  to  guard  it  against  the  inva- 
sion of  hostile  microorganisms.  There  is  excellent  opportunity,  and  emi- 
nent need,  for  station  investigators  to  enter  into  this  field  of  work. 

This  brings  us  at  once  to  a  consideration  of  the  distribution  and  nature 
of  the  work  on  poultry  diseases  among  the  experiment  stations.  It  is  a 
regrettable  fact  that  of  the  forty -eight  experiment  stations  in  the  United 
States,  only  six  are,  at  the  present  time  engaged  in  the  study  of  poultry 
diseases,  or  disease  parasites;  and  only  four  of  these  are  making  a  definite 
study  of  the  infectious  or  communicable  diseases.  Efforts  in  this  country 
to  establish  etiological  relations  of  poultry  diseases,  have  not,  as  a  rule, 
yielded  fruitful  results,  either  in  benefit  to  the  poultry  industry  as  a  whole, 
or  to  pure  science.  Indeed,  it  is  only  within  a  comparatively  short  time 
that  the  pathological  anatomy  and  etiology  of  poultry  diseases,  as  a  whole, 
has  begun  to  be  placed  upon  a  scientifically  accurate  basis.  Ever  since  the 
painstaking  and  productive  researches  of  Pasteur  upon  fowl  cholera, 
scientifically  trained  investigators  in  this  country  have  avoided,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  the  field  of  poultry  diseases,  either  believing  that  the  field  was 
too  far  removed  from  the  study  of  mammalian  diseases  to  make  their 
investigation  really  of  value,  or  convinced  that  the  subject  of  poultry 
diseases  was  too  limited  in  its  scope,  and  too  narrow  in  its  suggestiveness,  to 
furnish  the  researcher  with  problems  worthy  of  his  steel.  And  for  these 
reasons  the  work  in  the  investigation  of  poultry  diseases  in  this  country  has 
until  within  the  last  five  years,  been  practically  at  a  standstill  compared 
with  the  progress  made  along  similar  lines  in  Germany,  France,  and  Russia. 
As  a  result,  our  text  books  are  full  of  data  on  diseases  which  do  not  exist, 
and  when  we  wish  to  obtain  definite  information  on  some  of  those  that  do 
exist  in  this  country,  we  are  forced  to  go  to  the  works  of  German,  French,  or 
Italian  investigators. 

The  nature  of  the  replies  from  the  various  experiment  stations,  together 
with  the  loose,  and  often  unreliable,  quality  of  the  majority  of  the  few 
bulletins  that  have  been  published  by  the  stations  upon  the  subject  of 
poultry  diseases,  are  decidedly  suggestive  of  the  strenuous  effort  that 
should  be  made  to  raise  the  standard  of  this  line  of  investigation  in  the 
institutions  of  this  country. 


BY    PHILIP    B.    HADLEY  57 

It  is  not  the  function  of  the  present  paper  to  indicate  what  subjects  of 
investigation  in  poultry  diseases  may  be  especially  desirable  or  profitable 
at  this  time,  but  it  may  be  said  that  the  field  is  a  wide  one,  and  the  need 
for  such  work  great. 

The  next  most  important  branch  of  poultry  investigations,  at  least  the 
one  in  which  a  large  number  of  stations  are  interested,  is  that  of  Housing. 
Seven  institutions  are  now  investigating  the  merits  of  different  housing 
systems,  upon  egg  production,  fertility,  etc.  Much  of  the  experimental 
work  in  this  line  has  already  yielded  good  results.  One  of  the  aspects  of 
this  subject  which  has  not,  however,  received  so  much  attention,  is  the 
hygienic  conditions  of  the  poultry  house,  especially  with  reference  to  the 
nature  of  the  flooring,  the  presence  of  many  deep,  open  cracks,  and  the 
supply  of  sunlight.  All  these  points  are  directly  referable  to  the  larger 
subject  of  Poultry  Hygiene,  already  mentioned. 

Most  of  the  remaining  subjects  of  poultry  investigation  may  be  grouped 
under  the  heading  of  Methods  and  Technique,  especially  with  reference  to 
handling  the  fowls  themselves.  This  group  included  experiments  in 
caponizing,  in  preparing  birds  for  market,  in  methods  of  shipping  and  of 
storing  dressed  fowl.  Under  this  head  may  also  be  placed  the  method  of 
handling  and  preserving  eggs ;  and  methods  of  storing  them  for  the  market. 
All  these  subjects  are  of  value,  and  it  is  somewhat  surprising  that  only  four 
stations  are  interested  in  definite  work  of  this  nature,  although  several 
others  are  making  casual  observations. 

The  remaining  subjects  which  are  receiving  attention  are  of  a  miscel- 
laneous nature.  They  include  for  instance  experiments  calculated  to  show 
the  value  of  the  male  in  the  flock,  especially  with  reference  to  bringing  up 
the  grade  of  a  scrub  flock ;  also  studies  of  the  moulting  of  birds,  the  rate  of 
feathering,  etc.  One  station  is  making  a  special  point  of  the  study  of  the 
vitality  of  the  stock,  believing  that  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  con- 
siderations for  the  poultry  man.  Other  subjects  include  color  feeding,  the 
influence  of  light  upon  the  egg-production  of  a  flock,  the  influence  of  light 
upon  the  development  of  chicks,  all  of  which  problems  are  being  investigated 
by  one  or  two  stations.  And  besides  all  these,  there  are  probably  still  other 
problems  which,  as  the  writer  has  stated,  have  not,  for  one  reason  or 
another,  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  your  committee. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  we  have  some  reason  to  be  proud  of  the 
quality  of  the  investigation  of  poultry  problems,  which  is  now  being  con- 
ducted in  this  country.  However  much  has  been  written  on  some  of  the 
subjects  in  investigation  given  above,  very  few  problems  are  as  yet,  settled. 
What  is  needed  primarily  in  poultry  investigations  at  the  present  time  is  a 


58  PRESENT   STATUS   OF    POULTRY   INVESTIGATION 

greater  body  of  substantial  facts  on  all  phases  of  the  subject  concerned. 
When  these  facts  have  been  secured,  it  will  be  time  enough  to  read  into 
them,  and  out  of  them,  the  principles  of  breeding,  the  principles  of  poultry 
feeding,  and  the  principles  of  the  causation  and  treatment  of  poultry 
diseases.  With  respect  to  the  fundamental  principles  which  underlie  all 
these  branches,  we  are  still  very  much  in  the  dark,  but  the  increasing  en- 
thusiasm for  work  in  solving  the  problems  of  poultry,  if  united  with  a  wise 
discretion  as  to  what  problems  an  investigator  or  an  institution  is  best  fitted 
to  take  up,  will  assuredly,  in  the  near  future,  yield  results  of  rich  profit. 


THE   PRESENT   STATUS   OF   INVESTIGATION   OF   THE 
PROBLEMS  OF  POULTRY  CULTURE1 

PRESENTED    BY    PHILIP    B.  HADLEY 
READ    BY   WM.  F.  KIRKPATRICK 

In  the  previous  report  of  your  committee  on  investigation  it  was  stated 
that  of  forty-eight  Experiment  Stations  in  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
sending  replies  to  circular  letters,  slightly  more  than  half,  or  twenty-five, 
were  engaged  in  the  investigation  of  poultry  problems,  leaving  twenty-three 
which  were  carrying  on  no  poultry  work.  It  has  been  ascertained  at  the 
present  time,  that  twenty-seven  institutions  out  of  forty-eight,  are  carrying 
on  investigational  work  with  poultry,  while  twenty-one  are  not.  In  other 
words,  two  institutions  have  during  the  past  year  initiated  poultry  investi- 
gations. Two  institutions  among  the  twenty-one,  not  at  present  carrying 
on  poultry  investigation,  signify  their  intention  of  doing  so  within  the 
coming  year. 

As  to  the  subjects  of  investigation,  the  following  points  are  to  be  noted. 
As  was  the  case  one  year  ago,  more  energy  is  being  expended  under  the  head 
of  breeding  and  feeding  than  in  all  the  other  divisions  of  poultry  investiga- 
tion combined.  However,  while  one  year  ago  ten  Stations  were  engaged  in 
breeding  experiments  for  egg  production,  at  the  present  time  the  number  has 
diminished  to  seven,  and  one  of  these  instances  is  the  first  initiative.  This 
indicates  that  four  institutions  have  abandoned  either  permanently  or 
temporarily  this  phase  of  breeding  work. 

One  year  ago  breeding  for  meat  production  was  being  carried  on  at  two 
institutions.  This  year  the  number  has  increased  to  three. 

A  year  ago  there  were  six  stations  feeding  for  meat  production.  At  the 
present  time  only  four  are  engaged  in  this  line  of  investigation;  and  whereas 
one  year  ago  six  stations  were  feeding  for  egg  production,  at  the  present  time 
only  five  are  engaged  in  this  investigation,  although  two  more  signify  their 
intention  of  entering  this  field. 

Another  phase  of  the  work  in  animal  feeding  is  to  be  considered  under  the 
head  of  Investigation  in  Nutrition.  This  work  has  in  view  the  utility  of 
particular  materials,  and  seeks  the  reason  for  it  in  the  chemical  composition 
of  the  substances  concerned.  Three  stations  are  engaged  in  this  line  of 
work. 

When  we  come  to  the  subject  of  incubation,  we  find  that  there  are  five 
stations  interested  in  incubation  problems  against  seven  of  a  year  ago. 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Investigation  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1910. 


60  PRESENT   STATUS   OF    POULTRY   INVESTIGATION 

Moreover,  while  five  stations  were  attacking  brooding  problems  a  year  ago, 
at  the  present  time  only  one  institution  is  apparently  still  consistently 
inquiring  into  problems  of  this  nature. 

The  number  of  stations  studying  the  diseases  of  poultry  remains  the 
same  as  a  year  ago,  that  is,  six.  One  station,  however,  has  apparently 
dropped  out  of  this  line  of  work,  and  one  new  one  has  entered  the  field. 
Still  one  other  station  promises  to  enter  upon  this  line  of  work  in  the  autumn 
The  fact  that  each  year  the  experiment  stations  are  entering  more  fully  into 
the  study  of  the  cause  and  prevention  of  poultry  diseases  is  surely  encourag- 
ing. 

The  number  of  stations  investigating  the  merits  of  certain  housing  sys- 
tems has  increased  one  over  last  year.  The  number  is  now  eight. 

Although  breeding  work  does  not  appear  to  have  advanced  ovtr  last 
year,  it  is  interesting  to  observe  how  much  more  attention  is  being  demoted 
to  the  study  of  the  egg,  together  with  conditions  affecting  its  fertility  and 
hatchability;  also  of  conditions  affecting  the  vigor  of  young  chicks.  All 
of  these  problems  are  being  attacked  more  strongly  than  ever  from  the 
bacteriological,  and  physiological  and  chemical  points  of  view. 

Other  important  and  more  fundamental  lines  of  investigation  which  are 
being  taken  up  by  only  one  or  two  stations  are  the  physiology  oj  reproduction, 
and  the  physiology  of  digestion  in  poultry.  The  practical  results  of  these 
investigations  are  not  quick  to  appear,  but  their  value  is  yet  a  basic  one. 
Outside  of  breeding  work,  which  has  for  its  object  either  meat  production  or 
egg  production,  certain  other  studies  in  inheritance  are  being  carried  on  with 
poultry,  one  station  is  studying  the  behavior  of  weight  in  inheritance,  and 
one  the  possible  method  of  fixing  heterozygous  characters  in  poultry. 

Most  of  the  remaining  subjects  of  poultry  investigation  can  be  grouped 
under  the  head  of  "Methods  and  Technique,"  This  group  includes  caponiz- 
ing,  preparing  birds  for  market,  methods  of  shipping  and  storing  dressed 
fowl,  methods  of  handling  and  preserving  eggs,  effect  of  free  range  upon  egg 
production,  factors  influencing  the  size  and  weight  of  eggs,  the  effect  of  the 
male  in  the  flock,  the  analysis  of  eggs,  the  effect  of  feeding  animal  food  upon 
the  hatching  power  of  eggs,  etc.  Not  more  than  one  station,  as  a  rule  is 
interested  in  any  one  of  these  problems. 

One  point  is  brought  out  strongly  as  a  result  of  observing  the  scheduled 
lines  of  poultry  investigations  of  the  same  institutions  for  two  or  three 
successive  years.  This  is  the  arbitrary  way  in  which  certain  lines  of 
investigation  are  taken  up  and  dropped.  The  value  of  the  majority  of  the 
lines  of  investigations  with  poultry  depend  to  a  great  measure  upon  con- 
tinuity of  effort,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  all  breeding  work.  Probably 


BY    PHILIP   B.    HADLEY  61 

the  condition  is  not  so  serious  as  it  is  made  to  appear  through  more  or  less 
hurried  replies  to  circular  letters,  but  the  fact  remains  that  continuity  of 
effort  does  not  characterize  the  investigational  effort  of  the  institutions  in 
this  country  as  a  whole. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

PHILIP  B.  HADLEY, 
JAMES  G.  HALPIN, 
J.  P.  LANDRY. 


PROFITABLE    LINES   OF   INVESTIGATION   IN   POULTRY 

DISEASES 

BY    GEORGE    BYRON    MORSE 

In  the  last  analysis  all  truly  scientific  investigation  looks  toward  the 
practical.  The  pure  bred  scientist  is  by  nature  a  utilitarian.  One  would 
not  be,  therefore,  far  astray  in  answering  the  implied  question  of  this 
paper's  title  by  saying  that  all  lines  of  investigation  in  poultry  diseases 
are  profitable.  Surveying  the  field  of  poultry  diseases  for  the  first  time 
one  is  astounded  that  so  little  really  final  work  has  been  accomplished. 
We  have  positive  knowledge  as  to  the  causative  relation  of  a  few  infectious 
agents  to  certain  epizootic  diseases.  But  when  it  comes  to  the  question  of 
the  normal  habitat  of  these  supposedly  well  identified  microbes,  of  how  best 
to  attack  them  before  they  attack  the  flock,  of  the  surest  weapons  with 
which  to  repel  an  attack,  of  what  kind  of  a  certificate  of  health  can  be 
awarded  a  so-called  cured  bird,  I  do  not  fear  contradiction  when  I  assert 
that  we  are  largely  in  the  dark. 

Suppose  we  take  the  embryo.  Why  do  chicks  die  in  the  shell?  Your 
weak-germs  and  lack-of -moisture  theories  have  been  worked  a  long  while 
but  they  do  not  fit  all  cases.  Why  do  hens  surpass  incubators  in  securing  a 
manifestation  of  fertility  in  the  eggs?  Are  there  microbes  or  enzymes  at 
work  within  the  egg  that  throttle  the  embryo  on  the  very  threshold  of  life? 
And  if  they  do  not  die  in  the  shell  what  is  that  spirit  of  spite  that  makes 
them  "cripples"  at  the  time  of  hatching  ? 

Suppose  we  take  the  chick.  On  the  headstone  over  an  infant's  grave  in 
an  English  churchyard  are  the  words: 

If  I  was  so  soon  to  be  done  for, 
What  in  the  world  was  I  begun  for? 

Many  a  poultryman  has  probably  said,  as  he  viewed  the  sickening  mass 
of  feathered  remains  of  what  had  appeared  to  be  a  good  hatch,  "Them's 
my  sentiments."  The  cause  of  white  diarrhea  in  chicks  has  been  recognized 
and  announced  by  the  writer,  but  the  problems  connected  with  this  fatal 
plague  of  coccidiosis  are  many  and  difficult  of  solution.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  all  the  diseases  that  sweep  epizootically  through  a  flock. 

Intestinal  troubles  in  chicks  offer  a  most  interesting  subject  of  investiga- 
tion. Probably  no  subject  presents  better  inducements  for  careful  and 
extensive  research  than  that  of  the  diarrheas  of  chicks  and  chickens. 
Relaxation  diarrhea  must  be  taken  into  account.  Physical  agencies,  such  as 


BY  GEORGE  BYRON  MORSE  63 

heat  or  its  lack,  moisture  or  its  lack,  play  a  prominent  role  in  the  causation 
of  this  form  of  diarrhea.  Foreign  body  diarrheas  must  also  be  recognized. 
Under  this  head  I  would  place  those  diarrheal  conditions  arising  from  over- 
feeding, too  frequent  feeding  or  the  feeding  of  wrong  material,  all  of  which 
might  be  placed  under  the  general  title  of  improper  feeding.  Parasitic 
diarrheas,  using  the  term  "parasitic"  in  its  widest  sense,  offer  the  greatest 
field  for  research  on  the  line  we  are  now  considering,  especially  to  the 
pathologist.  The  macroparasites  deserve  attention  whether  they  be 
supposedly  harmless  worms  acting  injuriously  only  by  the  greatness  of 
their  numbers  or  as  I  am  inclined  to  think  we  shall  come  to  believe,  through 
their  toxins,  or  the  hooked  forms  which  at  once  act  as  irritants  and  possibly 
frequently  as  inoculating  needles  for  intestinal  bacteria  that  are  only  wait- 
ing to  enter  through  the  abraded  mucous  membrane.  Then  there  are  the 
microparasites,  microorganisms,  which  divide  into  two  general  classes: 
protozoa  which  are  the  lowest  animal  forms,  and  microscopic  vegetable 
forms  such  as  bacteria  and  molds. 

Among  the  protozoa  as  agents  of  intestinal  disturbances,  the  coccidia 
and  the  flagellates  are  to  be  studied.  Whereas  there  is  but  one  coccidium, 
Coccidium  tenellum,  it  is  very  likely  that  we  shall  have  to  take  account  of 
different  flagellates,  the  Cercomonas  and  the  Trichomonas,  as  causing 
diarrheas  and  other  forms  of  intestinal  disturbance  not  only  in  chicks  but 
in  adult  poultry  as  well. 

In  this  connection  it  must  be  remembered  that  intestinal  disturbances 
do  not  invariably  manifest  themselves  by  diarrhea.  In  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry  Circular  No.  128,  which  presents  in  a  preliminary  way, 
the  subject  of  coccidiosis  in  poultry,  the  writer  calls  attention  to  the  fact 
that  he  believes  that  many  cases  of  limberneck  and  leg  weakness  are 
caused  by  the  coccidium.  Maggots  have  long  had  the  unenviable  reputa- 
tion of  causing  limberneck  in  chickens  but,  without  doubt,  it  is  not  the 
maggots  per  se  that  cause  that  nervous  phenomenon.  The  poisons  from 
the  decaying  meat  containing  the  maggots  are  producing  their  toxic  effects 
upon  the  bird.  Hence  it  is  not  too  much  to  expect  that  the  toxins  developed 
in  the  intestinal  tract  by  bacteria  and  by  digestive  changes  in  the  food,  gain 
entrance  into  the  body  of  the  bird  through  abrasions  caused  by  any  intes- 
tinal parasites  and  so  produce  limberneck.  As  a  therapeutic  test  of  the 
correctness  of  this  diagnosis  try  the  administration  of  a  teaspoonful  of 
castor  oil  containing  10  to  15  drops  of  turpentine,  repeated  every  two  or 
three  days,  or  purgative  doses  of  Epsom  salt.  We  have  already  learned  in 
human  medicine  that  intestinal  toxemia  may  be  the  cause  of  many  cases  of 
arthritis,  often  called  rheumatism,  and  one  of  the  commonest  methods  of 


64  LINES   OF   INVESTIGATION    IN    DISEASES 

the  development  of  intestinal  toxemia  in  chickens  is  through  the  presence  of 
intestinal  parasites.  And  so,  in  leg  weakness  or  rheumatism  or  paralysis 
or  whatever  you  choose  to  call  it,  purgation  results  in  a  most  beneficial 
confirmation  of  the  diagnosis. 

The  bacterial  diseases  of  chicks  demand  investigation.  Shortly  after 
the  appearance  of  Circular  128,  Rettger  and  Harvey  presented  a  detailed 
study  of  a  speticemia  of  young  chicks  which  had  been  studied  earlier  by 
Professor  Rettger  himself.  The  authors  have  seen  fit  to  attach  to  their 
title  the  words  "White  Diarrhea"  although  the  disease  bears  all  the  ear 
marks  of  a  septicemia.  For  this  reason  and  because  diarrhea  is  apt  to  be 
one  of  the  symptoms  of  the  young  chick's  infection  with  this  bacterium 
discovered  by  Professor  Rettger,  the  disease  calls  for  mention  at  this  point. 
It  seems  to  the  writer  that  nothing  could  offer  a  more  interesting  and  fruit- 
ful field  of  investigation  than  a  most  careful  study  of  the  bacterial  flora  of 
the  fowl's  intestine,  starting,  of  course,  with  the  chick.  Those  who  enter 
deeply  into  the  microbiologic  investigation  of  chick  diseases  will  find,  as  has 
the  writer,  that  various  bacteria  play  a  part  in  the  production  of  death  even 
when  the  diseased  condition  has  been  induced  by  coccidia,  flagellates  or 
worms.  This  is  true  not  only  for  chicks  but  also  for  fowls.  Hence  the 
importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the  bacteria  that  are  likely  to  come  to  light 
from  time  to  time  in  connection  with  these  different  ailments,  for  instance, 
Bacillus  coli,  Bacterium  aerogenes,  Bacterium  sanguinarium  Moore,  the 
bacillus  of  fowl  cholera,  Bacillus  pyocyaneus  otherwise  known  as  the  bacillus 
of  green  pus,  and  some  of  the  variants  of  Bacillus  proteus. 

The  molds  that  produce  disease  in  chicks  should  be  studied.  It  is 
probable  that  but  one,  Aspergillus  fumigatus,  calls  for  special  study.  This 
is  known  to  be  quite  troublesome  especially  among  water  birds  and  pigeons. 
The  writer  within  the  last  few  months  in  attempting  to  distinguish  between 
the  various  diarrheas  of  chicks  has  come  to  recognize  that  what  is  called 
"pasting"  or  "pasting  up  behind"  is  oftener  associated  with  a  lung  affection 
than  with  coccidiosis,  although  it  may  occur  in  this  latter  disease.  Brooder- 
pneumonia  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  incubator  penumonia  is  an  affection 
of  young  chicks  in  which  the  lungs  are  studded  with  pinhead  yellowish  or 
whitish  nodules.  Sometimes  a  large  portion  of  one  or  both  lungs  are  trans- 
formed into  a  cheesy  mass.  Such  chicks  have  been  called  "lungers."  This 
lung  disease  according  to  the  writer's  findings  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the 
mold,  Aspergillus  fumigatus.  The  recognition  of  this  organism  in  this 
affection  and  the  development  of  the  disease  at  such  an  early  date  suggests 
also  the  possibility  of  egg  infection  from  the  hen's  diseased  eggtube  or  by 
being  retained  for  some  time  in  a  musty  locality  before  incubation.  It  has 


BY  GEORGE  BYRON  MORSE  65 

long  been  known  that  this  particular  mold  infects  the  inside  of  eggs  and  it 
is  easily  conceivable  that  the  incubation  of  the  egg  would  furnish  the 
necessary  heat  and  moisture  required  for  the  development  of  the  mold. 
Any  pure-blood  researcher  would  easily  think  up  a  dozen  lines  of  investiga- 
tion to  be  pursued  in  connection  with  this  mold  infection. 

The  gape  worm,  although  well  studied,  can  still  furnish  us  with  some 
interesting  matter  for  investigation.  For  instance,  we  should  have  a  better 
treatment  than  that  of  slowly  digging  out  the  worm  from  the  windpipe  by 
means  of  a  horsehair  or  a  timothy  head.  Then,  too,  is  it  the  earth  worm 
or  the  old  hen  that  keeps  up  the  supply  ? 

Suppose  we  take  the  chicken  or  fowl.  Here  we  still  find  coccidiosis, 
flagellosis,  aspergillosis  and  several  of  the  bacterial  infections.  The  gape 
worm  and  Rettger's  bacillus  drop  out,  but  in  their  place  we  find  fowl 
cholera,  meat  poisoning  or  infection  with  the  so-called  hog  cholera  organism 
and  several  bacilli  that  have  been  recognized  in  association  with  roup. 
Here  comes  up  also  the  investigation  of  the  treatment  of  roup.  Is  it 
actually  worth  while  to  attempt  to  treat  a  flock  when  once  the  infection 
has  secured  a  good  start?  Can  the  birds  be  successfully  treated?  Would 
it  not  be  best,  when  once  the  disease  is  recognized,  before  it  has  produced 
symptoms  in  the  exposed  birds,  to  kill  them  off  for  market,  disinfect  the 
premises  thoroughly  and  start  fresh? 

There  is  a  rather  large  group  of  diseases  of  the  liver  that  are  popularly 
classed  under  the  designation  "spotted  liver,'*  "liver  disease,"  etc.  These 
should  be  differentiated  and  studied,  placed  upon  their  proper  ground  as 
infectious  diseases  as  most  of  them  are,  and  classified  as  to  their  curability, 
the  desirability  of  attempting  a  cure  or  the  necessity  of  undertaking  most 
radical  measures  for  their  eradication.  Instead  of  calling  them  all  tuber- 
culosis and  saying  that  they  are  caused  by  overfeeding,  let  us  at  least  rec- 
ognize that  there  are  tuberculosis,  aspergillosis,  coccidiosis,  (especially  if  the 
blackhead  disease  of  turkeys  be  completely  demonstrated  to  be  a  coccidiosis 
and  the  subject  is  sure  to  receive  most  careful  researching  at  the  hands  of 
our  talented  fellow  member  Dr.  P.  B.  Hadley,  of  the  Rhode  Island  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station),  cercomoniasis,  and  liver  invasions  by  the  two 
malignant  tumor  formations,  sarcoma  and  carcinoma,  to  say  nothing  of  a 
disease  apparently  a  blood  disorder,  known  as  leukemia  which  also  produces 
minute  spots  in  the  liver. 

It  would  be  a  splendid  thing  for  the  poultry  industry  if  we  could  during 
the  coming  year  run  down  even  a  fourth  of  the  lines  of  investigation  sug- 
gested. Should  any  one  fear  a  dearth  of  work  after  all  the  foregoing  has 
been  accomplished,  I  would  simply  remind  him  that  the  field  is  unlimited. 


THE  RELATION  OF  INTESTINAL  WORMS  TO  POULTRY 

HYGIENE 

BY    GEORGE    EDWARD    GAGE 

Poultry  hygiene  today  embodies  all  those  factors  which  are  conducive 
to  the  maintenance  of  poultry  in  a  healthy,  vigorous  condition.  To  the 
average  layman  this  simply  means  attending  to  the  general  outward  appear- 
ance of  the  different  housing  and  yarding  conditions,  as  to  neatness  and 
general  cleanliness.  The  term,  however,  has  a  far  broader  meaning  when 
applied  in  the  purely  scientific  sense.  It  means,  among  other  things,  are 
intestinal  worms  and  other  parasites  present  on  the  poultry  premises? 
Are  they  a  constant  menace  to  the  general  well  being  of  the  birds  which  are 
to  furnish  produce  for  the  market?  The  statement  that  some  of  the  birds 
are  harboring  intestinal  worms  may  sound  simple,  but,  if  it  is  true,  great 
may  be  the  consequences  from  the  standpoint  of  breeding  and  finance. 

.  The  question  of  worms  is  of  far  greater  importance  than  the  poultry 
investigator  is  apt  to  believe.  In  the  southern  states  these  parasites  are 
undoubtedly  responsible  for  more  disease  than  simply  those  ailments  which 
are  designated  as  tseniade  infestations.  The  relation  of  these  intestinal 
parasites  to  the  fundamental  principles  of  poultry  hygiene  is  paramount. 
Their  powers  of  depleting  nourishment  supply,  of  injuring  the  intestinal 
epithelium  and  of  invoking  a  nervous  condition  are  only  a  few  instances  of 
their  work  in  starting  the  course  for  other  infectious  diseases  in  which  they 
prepare  the  path  for  either  pathogenic  bacteria  or  other  deadly  parasites 
which,  by  their  bacterial  action  or  poisons,  may  ultimately  cause  the  death 
of  the  fowl. 

It  has  been  my  experience  in  Maryland  to  observe  the  autopsy  of  many 
birds  in  which  the  intestinal  mucosa  was  greatly  damaged  either  by  the 
presence  of  tapeworms  or  round  worms.  They  caused  an  intestinal  catarrh 
which  formed  denuded  areas  infested  with  animal  parasites  and  thus  caused 
the  death  of  the  birds. 

In  reviewing  literature  on  the  various  parasitic  diseases,  it  is  interesting 
to  note  the  importance  which  many  pathologists  attach  to  worm  infesta- 
tion. It  may  be  a  complication  in  fowl  cholera,  blackhead  in  turkeys, 
and  in  several  others  of  the  intestinal  diseases  of  domestic  birds.  When  the 
intestinal  tract  is  invaded  by  Tsenia  inf  undibuliformis,  a  tapeworm  common 
in  Maryland,  Virginia  and  West  Virginia,  or  by  round  worms  of  the  Hetera- 
kis  type,  common  in  Maryland,  undoubtedly  they  play  a  great  part  in 
hastening  a  fatal  issue  in  any  bird  suffering  from  any  other  intestinal 


BY    GEORGE    EDWARD    GAGE  67 

infection  or  infestation.  Worm  infestation  plays  a  most  important  role  in 
emaciation,  causing  faulty  assimilation  and  resulting  in  a  deranged 
metabolism.  These  parasites  destroy  the  absorbing  epethilium. 

The  importance  of  eliminating  these  parasites  from  birds  has  been  clearly 
demonstrated  at  the  Maryland  Experiment  Station.  On  several  occasions 
birds  have  been  selected  for  experimental  work  and  after  two  or  three 
weeks  the  presence  of  round  worms  has  been  detected  in  the  droppings 
and  in  several  instances  death  has  resulted  from  large  numbers  of  tape- 
worms being  harbored  in  the  alimentary  tract,  causing  general  weakness, 
marasmus  and  ultimately  the  death  of  the  subject  in  question.  If  experi- 
mental work  of  a  strictly  scientific  character  is  to  be  conducted  in  the 
southern  states,  where  intestinal  worms  abound,  the  observance  of  hygienic 
methods  in  experimental  pens  should  include  the  careful  examination  of 
the  droppings  for  evidences  of  tapeworm  and  round  worm  infestation  and 
the  elimination  of  the  factors  which  may  contribute  to  any  pathological 
condition  and  cause  disturbances  in  the  general  physiology  of  the  birds. 
When  conducting  experiments  in  poultry  pathology  these  considerations 
are  evidently  of  fundamental  importance. 

Frequently  people  who  keep  poultry  on  a  small  scale  do  not  understand 
why  their  poultry  does  not  yield  profits  comparable  with  the  other  farm 
animals.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  it  is  the  result  of  trying  t6  raise  poultry 
as  an  adjunct  to  the  farm  without  considering  the  necessary  precautions 
for  their  well  being.  The  crops  and  other  live  stock  receive  first  attention 
and  the  chickens  last.  When  disease  infects  the  flocks  it  is  allowed  to  run 
its  course  without  interruption  until  nearly  all  the  birds  die.  Then  the 
poultry  man  becomes  discouraged. 

To  return  to  our  definition  of  poultry  hygiene  it  may  be  stated  that  it  is 
a  branch  of  poultry  husbandry  which  is  concerned  with  the  maintenance 
of  the  health  of  poultry.  Perhaps  the  poultry  man  is  not  impressed,  but  if 
the  fact  is  mentioned  that  every  year  there  die  from  infectious  diseases, 
thousands  and  thousands  of  valuable  birds  which  could  have  been  saved 
and  produced  a  handsome  income  for  the  owner.  Then  these  principles 
of  hygiene  may  become  of  interest. 

In  consideration  of  the  relation  of  the  intestinal  worms  to  poultry 
hygiene  and  as  an  example  of  rapidity  of  infestation,  it  may  be  well  to 
state  something  concerning  the  life  history  of  the  tapeworm. 

The  life  history  of  a  very  few  forms  of  tapeworms  is  definitely  known. 
It  is  generally  believed  that  the  infestation  of  these  parasites  is  transmitted 
through  an  intermediate  host.  They  are  adapted  to  a  life  of  parasitism. 
They  have  no  digestive  system,  but  are  nourished  through  the  general 


68  RELATION   OF   INTESTINAL   WORMS   TO    HYGIENE 

surface.  The  soft  liquid  nourishment  is  derived  from  the  material  within 
the  digestive  canal  of  the  host.  The  tape  or  flat-band  worm  is  not  con- 
tinuous but  is  made  up  of  segments  or  proglottides,  each  of  which  contains 
vital  organs,  and  in  the  posterior  end  of  the  worm  each  segment  contains  a 
complete  set  of  reproductive  organs.  As  rapidly  as  the  ova  are  fertilized 
they  are  received  into  a  uterus  which  is  distended  with  eggs.  The  segments 
drop  off  one  by  one  and  reach  the  exterior  in  the  feces  of  the  host.  In  this 
way  the  upper  surface  of  the  soil  over  which  the  poultry  range  becomes 
infested.  Each  egg  contains  an  embryo,  consisting  of  a  round  mass  of 
cells,  bearing  chitinous  hooks.  As  soon  as  the  egg  has  been  discharged  it  is 
necessary  that  it  reach  the  intestinal  canal  of  a  second  kind  of  animal 
which  is  the  intermediate  host.  This  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  embryo 
may  enter  the  next  phase  of  its  life  history. 

The  six-hooked  embryo  known  as  an  oncosphere  or  hexacanth  embryo, 
bores  its  way  from  the  intestines  into  the  body  cavity  of  the  intermediate 
host.  In  the  case  of  tapeworms  in  poultry,  this  is  thought  to  be  a  true 
worm,  snail,  crustacean  or  an  insect.  In  this  intermediate  host  it  develops 
into  a  larval  form  known  as  a  cysticeroid.  In  turn  this  larva  develops  into 
an  adult  worm  when  swallowed  by  a  chicken  and  causes  the  formation  of 
the  denuded  areas  along  the  intestinal  tract.  Grassi  and  Rovelli  state  that 
the  larva  of  Drepidotaenia  infundibuliformis  may  be  transmitted  to  birds 
through  the  house  fly  as  an  intermediate  host.  According  to  Piana  in  1882 
the  larva  of  Taenia  tetragona  was  found  in  snails  of  the  genus  Helix.  He 
holds  that  this  is  a  common  means  of  the  infestation  of  tapeworms  among 
domestic  fowls. 

If  intestinal  worms  are  detected  in  the  droppings  this  is  indicative  that 
there  is  great  probability  that  the  land  over  which  the  birds  range  may  be 
infested  with  the  worms  in  some  stage  of  their  life.  If  this  be  the  case,  and 
our  experience  here  at  Maryland  has  shown  it  to  be  so,  then  the  first 
hygienic  principle  to  be  employed  is  a  primary  and  fundamental  one  in  the 
science  of  hygiene,  namely:  prevention. 

Every  part  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected  with 
a  5  to  10%  solution  of  zenolium  or  some  other  good  disinfectant.  If  these 
birds  appear  badly  infested  every  individual  bird  should  receive  a  purgative 
dose  of  Epsom  salts  followed  by  a  few  drops  of  turpentine.  Finally,  every 
part  of  the  poultry  yards  should  be  plowed,  thus  bringing  the  eggs  or  larva 
of  the  infectious  parasites  to  the  surface  and  destroy  them  as  far  as  possible 
by  the  disinfecting  action  of  the  sun.  Lime  should  be  used  freely  and  if 
possible  the  land  sweetened  by  vegetation.  These  few  principles  observed 
will  greatly  correct  the  conditions  which  have  existed  during  infestation  of 
the  premises  with  intestinal  worms. 


BY   GEORGE   EDWARD    GAGE  69 

After  the  rehearsal  of  such  rigid  preventative  methods  the  poultryman 
will  ask,  "Did  it  pay?"  It  can  be  definitely  stated  that  in  all  our  experi- 
ments in  which  an  intestinal  worm  infestation  appeared  when  all  these 
careful  disinfecting  methods  were  strictly  observed  the  results  were  most 
gratifying.  Among  a  small  flock  in  which  worm  infestation  had  been 
evident,  this  method  of  disinfection  has  been  followed  during  the  past  few 
months  with  the  result  that  at  the  present  time  the  flock  is  absolutely  free 
from  the  infestation. 

These  facts  hold  true  for  young  chicks  as  well  as  for  older  birds.  Many 
of  the  intestinal  disturbances  which  young  chicks  exhibit  may  be  attributed 
to  the  harboring  of  intestinal  worms.  This  gives  evidence  of  faulty 
assimilation  which  results  in  an  unbalanced  metabolism.  These  conditions 
may  obtain  in  young  birds  suffering  from  any  of  these  parasites  which, 
injure  the  intestinal  epithelium. 

The  greatest  role  of  intestinal  worms  is  the  part  played  in  complication 
of  other  diseases  and  for  this  reason  alone  every  effort  should  be  made  to 
keep  the  premises  free  from  them.  There  are  several  factors  which  are 
favorable  to  their  existence.  If  the  farm  is  poorly  drained,  if  the  birds  have 
access  to  dirty  drinking  water,  and  if  birds  which  have  harbored  the  para- 
sites die  and  are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  grounds,  hygienic  principles  are 
not  being  observed.  And  if  in  the  summer  months  the  eggs  of  the  worms 
or  worms  in  any  stage  of  growth  are  about  the  place,  infestation  of  the 
poultry  will  occur  sooner  or  later.  When  these  parasites  infest  premises 
affording  such  unsanitary  environment  they  multiply  rapidly  and  in  a  very 
short  time  are  transmitted  from  bird  to  bird.  The  droppings  containing  the 
infection  are  deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  land,  over  which  the  birds 
range,  resulting  in  a  general  dissemination  of  infectious  material  thus 
contaminating  the  poultry  grounds  with  the  different  stages  of  these 
infesting  parasites. 

Under  such  conditions  how  can  the  farmer  or  poultryman  expect  to  raise 
birds  which  are  to  maintain  vigor  and  that  kind  of  vigor  which  is  necessary 
for  breeding  purposes?  If  young  birds  are  harboring  these  parasites  they 
can  never  be  expected  to  be  strong,  mature  birds  and  the  poultryman  will 
not  be  able  to  maintain  a  strain  of  birds  which  will  be  capable  of  performing 
all  the  functions  of  healthy  fowls. 

The  importance  of  these  intestinal  worms  in  relation  to  hygienic 
conditions  for  poultry  should  receive  considerable  investigation.  The 
life  histories,  modes  of  transmission,  and  the  action  of  the  various  disinfec- 
tants upon  them  are  subjects  which  need  much  study.  The  facts  that  they 
may  be  present  in  apparently  healthy  birds,  that  they  may  infest  the 


70  RELATION   OF   INTESTINAL   WORMS   TO   HYGIENE 

grounds  and  houses,  that  birds  may  harbor  them  all  their  lives  and 
be  a  menace  to  the  production  of  ideal  breeders,  and  that  they  may  make 
lesions  which  may  be  the  starting  point  of  more  serious  troubles,  are  enough 
to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  their  elimination  from  the  bodies  of  the  birds 
and  from  the  ground  of  any  well  conducted  poultry  plant.  This  is  a 
principle  that  is  quite  as  fundamental  in  poultry  hygiene  as  the  cleanliness 
and  neatness  of  the  houses  and  yards  themselves. 

In  the  warfare  against  the  conditions  produced  by  these  intestinal  para- 
sites a  most  rational  hygiene  of  the  poultry  houses  and  yards  must  be 
observed.  It  is  no  less  a  fact  that  domestic  birds  as  well  as  human 
beings  may  receive  infection  through  contaminated  food.  All  the 
means  of  communication  may  be  recognized,  and  just  as  the  spreading  of 
human  disease  is  held  to  be  a  matter  of  public  concern,  and  preventative 
measures  instituted  by  experts,  and  in  view  of  the  facts  that  intestinal 
worms  may  be  associated  with  other  diseases,  that  they  destroy  the  in- 
testinal epithelium  and  cause  emaciation,  and  general  intestinal  disorders, 
together  with  deranged  metabolism,  it  is  clear  that  the  elimination  of 
these  parasites  is  absolutely  necessary  if  poultry  hygiene  is  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  rearing  of  poultry.  The  relation  of  these  intestinal  worms 
to  poultry  hygiene  should  be  of  great  concern  to  the  poultryman  if  he  is 
desirous  of  maintaining  his  birds  in  a  healthy  condition.  Careful  consider- 
ation, however,  of  the  elimination  of  these  parasites  is  a  fundamental 
principle,  and  if  thoroughly  and  consistently  executed  will  do  a  great 
deal  toward  the  production  of  healthy  fowls  and  clean  breeding  stock. 


FOWL  CHOLERA  (CHOLERA  GALLINARUM) 

BY   J.    WILLEMS 

Translated  from  French  by  Victor  Fortier 

The  readers  of  ("FElevage"  of  Laeken-Belgigue  Europe)  are  well 
acquainted  with  the  losses  caused  by  the  dread  disease  which  we  intend  to 
discuss  a  little  in  the  following  lines. 

Fowl  cholera  is  the  most  dreadful  and  deadly  disease  that  attacks  our 
farm  yard  feathered  tribe. 

Chickens,  pigeons,  ducks,  geese,  swans,  turkeys,  guinea  fowl,  peacocks, 
rabbits,  guinea  pigs,  all  and  every  one  of  the  dwellers  of  our  roosts  and 
pens  may  be  stricken  by  the  frightful  sickness.  , 

The  disease  is  highly  infectious  and  virulent.  It  is  characterized  by 
dullness,  stupor,  brownish  coloring  of  the  comb  and  visible  mucous  mem- 
branes, ill  smelling  and  profuse  diarrhea.  The  course  of  the  disease  is  rapid 
and  unfavorable.  In  the  space  of  a  few  hours,  the  animals  die  in  the  midst 
of  horrible  suffering.  For  many  years  the  affection  caused  untold  and 
innumerable  losses.  The  disease  appears  spontaneously  and  in  a  few  days 
causes  the  greatest  devastation  .The  large  and  extensive  poultry  yards 
are  generally  the  greatest  sufferers,  and  in  a  very  short  time  the  most 
prosperous  establishment  is  turned  into  a  vast  cemetery.  The  virulence 
of  the  disease  is  such,  that  one  drop  of  blood  taken  from  an  infected  fowl 
and  injected  into  a  healthy  one  causes  the  death  of  the  latter  in  a  few  hours. 
The  disease  has  such  a  rapid  course,  that  in  a  few  days  all  the  animals 
whose  blood  or  organs  contain  the  microbe,  perish. 

As  soon  as  a  hen  house,  or  poultry  yard  is  infected,  the  healthy  animals 
must  be  separated  from  the  diseased.  Deep  buryial  in  the  ground  of  all 
dead  fowls,  is  an  elementary  precaution  against  further  contagion. 

For  several  centuries,  fowl  cholera  filled  the  human  race  with  a  dread 
and  fear  equalled  only  by  the  shudder  of  intense  horror  caused  by  the  black 
plague.  When  we  read  the  accounts  of  ancient  poultry  raising,  we  are 
horrified  to  find  that  the  dread  plague  mowed  down  the  harmless  fowls  by 
the  million  and  laid  waste  the  finest  establishments  of  the  time. 

Humanity  has  made  wonderful  strides  in  progress.  Admirable  and 
wonderful  discoveries  are  made  every  day,  and  man  finds  new  weapons 
wherewith  to  carry  on  the  fight  against  the  numerous  enemies  which 
surround  him. 

Pasteur,  the  wonderful  genius  to  whom  we  owe  so  many  beneficial 
discoveries,  found  and  isolated  the  microbe  of  chicken  cholera  and  intro- 


72  FOWL    CHOLERA 

duced  a  successful  treatment.  In  order  to  study  the  horrible  microbe, 
the  illustrious  professor  made  a  "bouillon"  with  the  muscular  tissue  of  a 
hen  and  water.  He  dropped  in  it  a  drop  of  blood  taken  from  a  diseased 
living  fowl.  He  left  the  whole  exposed  to  the  surrounding  air  for  a  period 
of  time  depending  on  the  noctivity  of  the  virus  he  wished  to  obtain.  After 
six  or  seven  months  he  thus  obtained  a  virus  to  such  an  extent  attenuated 
that  by  inocculating  or  vaccinating  with  this  product,  he  was  able  to  cause 
a  mild  form  of  the  disease  which  generally  immunized  the  fowls  against  the 
deadly  infection. 

Fowl  cholera  is  thus  no  longer  a  cause  of  dread  and  horror,  and  we  may 
look  with  confidence  to  the  future. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  pasteurian  treatment  the  incipient  diarrhea 
is  arrested,  torpor  disappears  and  life  seems  to  return.  The  improvement 
is  persistent  and  lasting.  After  a  short  time,  the  animals  run  around, 
scratch  and  pick;  the  comb  resumes  its  shape  and  color;  the  eye  is 
bright;  the  animals  become  lively  again  and  are  heard  once  more;  they 
cackle  and  crow,  they  hunt  their  food  with  a  renewal  of  vigor  and  life. 
There  is  a  complete  and  sure  return  to  a  condition  of  perfect  health. 

It  has  been  recommended  to  give  those  animals  which  are  not  infected, 
plenty  of  green  food,  and  grape  marc  when  in  season. 

The  manure  should  be  carted  away,  and  the  poultry  house  or  pen 
properly  cleaned  and  washed  with  a  solution  of  one  per  thousand  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  kills  the  bacillus.  The  animals  may  be  brought  together 
again : 

1  If  the  isolation  has  been  sufficient. 

2  If  there  are  no  more  diseased  birds. 

3  If  the  hens  and  poultry  in  general  are  kept  separate  from  the  other 
animals  on  the  farm. 

To  protect  their  birds  and  animals  against  those  two  most  deadly 
plagues,  cholera  and  anthrax,  breeders  should  have  their  fowls  vaccinated 
with  the  Pasteur  refractory  bouillon. 

Diseases  of  poultry  are  nearly  always  the  result  of  bad  food,  filth  in 
the  drinking  water,  or  infection  of  the  ground  and  houses;  consequently 
the  best  and  most  successful  remedies  are,  good  food,  water  renewed  daily 
and  kept  fresh  and  clean,  and  in  general  proper  attention  to  cleanliness 
of  the  poultry  house  and  pen. 

J.  WILLEMS. 


PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  EXPERIMENTAL  WORK  IN 

FEEDING 

BY    R.  R.  SLOCUM 

In  order  to  understand  clearly  the  status  of  the  experimental  feeding 
work  done  in  this  country  up  to  the  present  time,  it  is  necessary  to  call  to 
mind  the  evolution  of  the  poultry  departments  of  the  colleges  and  experi- 
ment stations.  Activities  along  this  line  even  at  those  stations  which  have 
the  oldest  reputation  for  poultry  work  are  comparatively  recent.  The 
beginning  of  these  poultry  departments  was  modest,  consisting  in  most 
cases,  of  a  few  fowls  housed  in  make-shift  sheds  equipped  and  cared  for  with 
implements  and  apparatus  which  found  their  way  to  the  poultry  depart- 
ment only  because  every  other  department  had  discarded  them  as  worth- 
less. 

Along  with  this  meager  equipment,  went  in  nearly  every  instance,  very 
small  appropriations  for  carrying  on  the  work.  This  made  it  necessary  for 
the  poultry  to  be  wholly  or  in  large  part,  self-supporting.  At  the  same 
time,  as  it  became  known  through  the  respective  states  that  poultry  work 
had  been  started  at  the  experiment  stations,  the  need  was  felt  of  publishing 
the  results  of  some  experimental  researches  to  meet  the  demand  for  informa- 
tion. Feeding  problems  lent  themselves  readily  to  fill  this  need.  They 
could  be  conducted  with  equipment  but  little  additional  to  that  needed 
to  keep  the  fowls  under  other  than  experimental  conditions;  the  egg  pro- 
duction was  not  in  most  cases  seriously  affected,  and  the  fowls  still  con- 
tinued therefore  to  be  self-supporting  or  nearly  so;  information  along 
feeding  lines  was  usually  greatly  sought  after  and  investigations  of  this 
nature  were  consequently  popular;  results  which  could  be  published  were 
obtained  in  a  comparatively  short  period  of  time  while  the  technique  of  the 
experimental  work  was  not  particularly  burdensome  or  time-consuming. 
More  feeding  tests  than  anything  else  thus  came  to  be  undertaken  in  the 
earliest  work  done  and  many  tests  of  this  nature,  though  more  elaborate, 
have  continued  to  be  carried  on  up  to  the  present  time. 

The  object  of  the  feeding  experiments  may  be  said  in  general  to  have 
been  one  of  the  following — a  comparison  of  methods  of  feeding,  a  com- 
parison of  some  particular  feed  or  feeds,  or  a  determination  of  digestive 
coefficients  for  poultry. 


74  EXPERIMENTAL  WORK  IN  FEEDING 

METHOD  OF  PROCEDURE 

The  general  method  of  procedure  in  these  feeding  trials  has  been  as 
follows:  Two  or  more  lots  of  fowls  were  selected,  some  attention  being 
given  to  equalizing  the  lots  as  far  as  age,  condition,  etc.,  were  concerned. 
The  different  lots  were  then  fed  in  various  ways  in  accordance  with  the 
plan  of  the  experiment  and  records  were  kept  of  the  performance,  feed,  con- 
dition, mortality,  etc.  A  fixed  unit  of  time  has  not  been  used  in  all  cases, 
but  usually  the  tests  were  carried  through  one  year.  At  the  end  of  the  time 
or  as  soon  as  convenient,  the  records  were  figured  up,  summarized,  com- 
parisons made,  and  an  account  of  the  experiment  and  such  conclusion,  as 
could  be  drawn  from  it,  was  published. 

COMPARISON  OF  METHODS 

A  large  number  of  the  feeding  tests  fall  under  this  head.  Comparisons 
were  made  with  a  number  of  objects  in  view.  For  example,  we  find 
comparisons  in  which  the  adaptability  of  methods  of  feeding,  such  as, 
morning  versus  evening  mash,  were  made  to  determine  the  best  way  to  feed 
under  ordinary  conditions  and  when  the  general  condition  of  the  flock  was 
taken  into  consideration.  In  many  other  cases,  the  comparisons  while 
concerned  with  health  and  vigor  were  made  principally,  for  determining  the 
effects  of  the  methods  on  egg  yield.  Other  comparisons  of  methods  have 
been  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  best  system  of  feeding  for 
fattening,  for  growing  young  stock  and  for  producing  broilers.  In  obtain- 
ing data  along  these  lines,  records  were  incidentally  and  in  many  cases 
purposely  kept  showing  the  cost  of  feeding  hens,  the  cost  of  producing 
eggs  and  flesh,  and  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  a  hen  under  various 
conditions. 

COMPARISON  OF  FEEDS 

In  the  feeding  tests  falling  under  this  head,  the  first  group  may  be 
considered  as  that  in  which  some  one  particular  grain  or  feed  stuff  was 
compared  with  some  other  one  grain  or  feed  stuff.  We  find  for  instance 
wheat  compared  with  corn,  skim  milk  with  meat  scrap,  clover  with  cabbage 
and  many  others.  We  find  also  in  this  group,  certain  feeds  tested  for 
their  stimulating  effect  on  egg  yield,  as  salt,  pepper,  etc.,  or  for  their  harm- 
ful effect  upon  the  health  of  the  flock,  as  cottonseed  meal.  In  fattening 
fowls  we  find  tallow  used  to  determine  its  effect  on  weight  and  on  the 
appearance  and  finish  of  the  fowls. 

We  find  also  tests  carried  on  in  which  certain  combinations  of  feeds  are 
compared.  The  most  common  of  such  tests  is  the  comparison  of  the 


BY    R.    R.    SLOCUM  75 

effect  of  carbonaceous  and  nitrogenous  rations  on  egg  yield,  fattening  and 
the  general  health  of  the  fowls.  Another  test  of  the  same  nature  is  the 
comparison  of  a  ration  rich  in  vegetable  protein  with  another  equally  rich  in 
animal  protein.  Proprietary  feeds  also  have  been  given  considerable 
attention. 

DIGESTION  EXPERIMENTS 

Few  experiments  have  been  carried  on  with  the  object  of  determining 
the  digestion  coefficients  of  feed  stuffs  for  poultry.  One  of  the  chief 
reasons  for  this  is  the  fact  that  such  experiments  are  difficult  because  an 
operation  on  the  birds  is  necessary  in  order  to  separate  the  feces  and  the 
excreta  of  the  kidneys,  which  are  normally  voided  together,  in  order  to 
make  analyses  of  each  separately.  Other  difficulties  were  the  lack  of 
suitable  equipment  and  the  need  of  chemical  assistance.  It  is  just  possible 
also  that  poultrymen  have  not  realized  fully  the  importance  and  necessity 
of  such  work. 

As  a  result  of  a  lack  of  work  of  this  character,  our  present  feeding 
standards  for  poultry  are  at  best  rather  inexact.  It  is  necessary  in  figuring 
poultry  rations  to  use  the  digestion  coefficients  established  for  other  classes 
of  animals.  This  information  is  fundamental  and  before  any  exact  feeding 
tests  can  be  carried  on,  it  must  be  obtained. 

CRITICISM  OF  FEEDING  WORK 

The  feeding  experiments  which  have  been  carried  on  in  the  past  have,  in 
a  majority  of  cases,  been  open  in  one  or  more  particulars,  to  criticism  of  a 
rather  severe  nature.  Perhaps  the  most  common  weakness  has  been  the 
failure  to  recognize  the  importance  of  individual  variation.  As  a  result 
conclusions  have  been  drawn  from  comparisons  in  egg  yield  of  pens  com- 
posed of  only  a  few  fowls.  In  using  these  small  numbers  it  is  quite  possible 
that  the  difference  in  egg  yield  has  been  the  result  not  of  the  method  of  feed- 
ing or  of  the  feed  but  of  the  unequal  division  of  individuals  producing 
either  above  or  below  the  average.  As  the  numbers  used  are  increased  the 
chance  of  such  unequal  distribution  of  individuals  is  diminished  and  the 
more  nearly  comparable  are  the  two  lots  of  fowls.  Also  the  use  of  fowls 
of  unknown  history  may  have  been  a  source  of  considerable  inaccuracy. 

Probably  the  second  greatest  criticism  is  the  lack  of  repetition  or  the  use 
of  an  insufficient  number  of  pens.  A  feeding  experiment  carried  only 
through  a  single  year,  or  with  only  one  lot  of  fowls  may  be  affected  by 
climate  or  other  factors  which  are  not  readily  recognized  and  which 
materially  change  the  results.  Under  these  conditions,  the  results  are  of 


76  EXPERIMENTAL   WORK    IN   FEEDING 

course  attributed  to  the  feed  or  method  of  feeding  and  may  lead  to  con- 
siderable inaccuracy.  Feeding  experiments  should  be  repeated  two  or 
three  times  with  the  same  pens,  and  with  different  pens,  if  possible,  in  order 
to  be  sure  of  the  grounds  on  which  conclusions  are  drawn.  With  the  acqui- 
sition of  larger  funds  and  of  better  equipment  for  poultry  work,  there  is 
coming  a  greater  realization  of  the  influence  of  the  factors  named,  so  that 
the  tendency  at  the  present  time  is  to  repeat  feeding  trials  and  to  use  a 
greater  number  of  individuals  in  the  pens  compared. 

FUTURE  FEEDING  WORK 

From  what  has  been  said  it  is  apparent  that  the  most  urgent  need  along 
this  line  is  the  determination  of  digestion  coefficients.  The  equipment  for 
such  work  is  rather  expensive  and  its  execution  will  require  considerable 
patience  and  skill.  The  results  first  obtained  may  not  be  suitable  for 
immediate  application  to  practical  problems  and  will  scarcely  make 
interesting  reading  for  the  majority  of  poultry  men;  but  eventually  they  will 
be  of  great  value  and  will  move  poultry  feeding  further  toward  an  exact 
science  than  it  is  at  the  present  time.  In  the  meantime,  feeding  experi- 
ments of  the  same  general  nature  as  those  of  previous  years,  will  yield  useful 
results  while  many  local  feeding  problems,  particularly  in  regard  to  the 
suitability  of  local  products  and  new  feeds  for  poultry,  will  constantly 
arise  and  require  solution.  There  is  at  present  a  tendency  to  feel  that  in 
poultry  feeding  rations  must  contain  many  and  rather  expensive  feed 
stuffs  even  though  they  have  to  be  shipped  into  that  particular  section  of 
the  country.  Probably  this  is  true  if  maximum  egg  production  or  maxi- 
mum gains  are  to  be  obtained,  but  with  the  present  universally  high 
prices  of  feeds,  it  is  questionable  whether  simpler  and  cheaper  rations  will 
not  produce  eggs  and  flesh  more  economically.  Feeding  tests  with  this 
end  in  view  may  well  be  undertaken. 


FEEDING   COLOR— AN  AID   IN   STUDYING   PHYSIOLOGICAL 

DEVELOPMENT1 

BY    C.  A.  ROGERS 

The  coloring  of  animal  tissues  with  Sudan  III  was  known  as  early  as 
1896  by  an  Italian  Scientist,  Daddi.  Dr.  Oscar  Riddle  of  Chicago  Univer- 
sity was  one  of  the  first  to  continue  with  color  work.  It  was  through  the 
incentive  of  an  address  by  him  before  the  zoological  meeting  at  Chicago, 
1907-8,  that  the  feeding  of  color  dyes  was  begun  at  Cornell  University. 
Dr.  Gage,  Professor  of  Histology  and  Embryology,  with  the  Department 
of  Poultry  Husbandry  in  co-operation,  started  several  experiments  of  feeding 
Sudan  III  to  hens.2  The  work  has  since  been  continued  by  the  writer,  using 
other  dyes  in  addition  to  Sudan  III. 

THE  NATURE  AND  ACTION  OF  THE  DYES 

Sudan  III  is  a  common  aniline  dye,  a  compound  from  Amidoazobenzene 
and  B. — Napthol.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  benzene,  petroleum,  ether, 
oils  and  fats.  When  fed  to  fowls  it  apparently  colors  the  fat  deposits  only. 

In  the  experiments  with  Sudan  III,  25  mg.  of  the  dye  were  fed  to  a 
mature  fowl  each  day.  Although  smaller  amounts  produced  color,  this  was 
not  sufficiently  intense.  Larger  amounts  may  be  fed  without  injuring  the 
fowl.  Dr.  Riddle  has  shown,  however,  that  excessive  amounts  produce 
fault-bars  in  the  growing  feathers  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.3 

Another  aniline  dye  that  produces  striking  results  is  Rhodamine  Red. 
It  is  fed  to  a  mature  fowl  in  doses  of  100  mg.  each  day.  It  colors  the  body 
muscles,  the  feathers  which  are  being  grown  when  the  dye  is  in  the  blood, 
and  the  shell  and  albumen  of  the  egg. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Sudan  III  colors  the  yolk  of  the  egg 
only,  while  Rhodamine  Red  colors  the  albumen  strongly  and  the  yolk 
slightly. 

The  other  dyes  used  were  Auramine  Yellow  and  Saffranine  Red.  These, 
as  far  as  the  work  progressed  seemed  to  act  in  much  the  same  way  as  the 
Rhodamine  Red. 

There  have  been  no  injurious  results  noticed  except  in  one  instance. 
The  fowl  fed  Auramine  Yellow  steadily  lost  in  weight,  but  regained  weight 

Reprinted  from  the   Cornell   Countryman. 

2Science  1908,  N.  S.,  Vol.  XXVIII,  No.  719,  p.  494,  "Sudan  III  Deposited  in  the 
Egg  and  Transmitted  to  the  Chick." 

3Biological  Bui.  No.  6,  May,  1908,  Vol.  XIV,  "The  Genesis  of  Fault  Bars  in  Feathers 
and  the  Cause  of  Alternation  of  Light  and  Dark  Fundamental  Bars." 


78  COLOR    FEEDING 

as  soon  as  the  dye  was  withheld.     Whereas  the  fowl  fed  Saffranine  Red 
steadily  put  on  weight  as  long  as  the  dye  was  given. 

THE  EGG 

The  eggs  from  the  fowls  fed  Sudan  III  had  as  before  stated,  yolks  of  a 
bright  red  color  (Plate  I,  C).  The  density  of  this  color,  however,  varied 
with  the  amounts  fed  and  the  frequency  of  the  feedings.  Daily  feeds  pro- 
duced concentric  layers  of  red  alternating  with  yellow  yolk.  Even  with 
the  dye  in  all  the  food  given  no  uniformly  colored  yolks  were  produced.  The 
eggs  laid  soon  after  the  first  feeding  of  dye  were  banded  near  the  outer  part 
only.  These  two  facts  show  that  the  yolk  is  built  up  by  successive  layers  of 
fat  deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  material  already  present  and  is  not  made 
by  any  intermingling  of  materials  deposited  at  different  times. 

When  the  color  was  fed  at  stated  intervals,  the  rate  of  growth  within  the 
yolk  was  obtained.  It  is  not  only  possible,  in  this  way,  to  calculate  the 
number  of  days  required  to  completely  develop  the  yolk,  but  also  to  study 
the  relative  amount  of  material  added  during  the  stages  of  its  formation. 
We  find  that  the  deposition  of  yolk  material  is  very  slow  at  first  but  exceed- 
ingly rapid  later,  the  outer  bands  being  much  broader  as  well  as  greater 
in  circumference.  With  a  particular  fowl  observed  it  required  fourteen 
days  for  the  yolk  to  be  fully  formed.  This  observation  was  taken  during 
the  heavy  laying  season. 

It  was  apparent  that  the  color  bands  were  much  thinner  than  the  yellow 
bands  of  yolk  when  the  dye  was  fed  daily.  This  would  indicate  that  the 
colored  food  from  each  feeding  remained  in  the  blood  less  than  one-half  day 
— about  eight  hours,  according  to  the  relative  thickness  of  the  bands. 
Even  when  all  of  the  food  was  colored,  the  yolk  deposits  varied  in  density  of 
color.  An  explanation  of  this  condition  might  be  that  the  rate  of  deposition 
of  the  fat  and  albumen  vary  during  the  day  and  night  and  that  while  one  is 
being  deposited  heavily,  the  other  is  less  abundant. 

The  germ  disc,  albuminous  center  and  connecting  tube  were  left  un- 
colored,  showing  that  either  they  contain  little  or  no  fat  or  were  a  part  of 
the  ovary  before  the  dye  was  fed.  Plate  I,  C  indicates  the  position  of  the 
white  yolk  center,  the  germinal  disc  and  the  white  connecting  tube.  It 
can  be  observed  also  that  the  yolk  layers  do  not  break  evenly  at  the  tube 
but  have  an  upward  bend  toward  the  germinal  disc. 

The  Rhodamine  Red  dye  colors  principally  the  albumen  of  the  egg. 
There  is  not  enough  protein  in  the  yolk  to  make  the  color  show  very 
distinctly  in  contrast  to  the  yellow.  The  albumen  is  colored  uniformly 
throughout  Plate  I,  A,  but  the  density  of  the  color  often  varies  from  day  to 


PLATE  I 


BY    C.    A.    ROGERS 


79 


day,  depending  apparently,  upon  the  state  of  development  of  the  egg  when 
the  dye  is  fed. 

After  two  days  of  incubation  the  fertile  eggs  colored  with  Sudan  III 
undergo  a  change.  The  outer  bands  of  color  break  up  and  intermingle  with 
the  yellow  bands  of  the  yolk.  By  the  fifth  day  of  incubation,  the  yolk  is 
quite  well  mixed  so  that  only  a  faint  resemblance  of  the  banded  condition 
remains.  By  this  time,  also,  the  albumen  near  the  developing  embryo 
has  turned  pink.  The  bulk  of  the  albumen,  however,  is  still  white.  (Plate 
I,  D) .  Upon  boiling  the  egg,  which  is  necessary  in  order  to  make  this  study 
the  white  albumen  becomes  quite  like  rubber,  while  the  pink  albumen 
remains  very  soft;  in  fact,  on  the  third  and  fourth,  and  often  on  the  fifth 
day  of  incubation  it  is  impossible  to  coagulate  the  pink  albumen  by 
boiling.  The  amount  of  pink  albumen  upon  which,  to  all  appearances, 
the  embryo  directly  feeds,  remains  quite  constant.  The  white  albumen 
gradually  decreases  until  entirely  softened  and  consumed. 

The  presence  of  color  in  the  albumen  leads  one  to  suspect  fat,  since 
Sudan  III  colors  fat  only.  Analysis  does  show  its  presence  in  a  large 
percentage. 

ANALYSES  OF  THE  YOLK  AND  ALBUMEN  OF  FRESH  AND  INCUBATED  EGGS 


%  Protein  in 
Dry  Matter 

%  Fat  in 
Dry  Matter 

%  Moisture 

Fresh  egg  —  Alburr 
"      Yolk 
'Sudan  III 
egg  incubated 
five  days 
'Sudan  III 
egg  incubated 
twelve  days 
Dav  old  chick  volk 

icn    

84-5 
2943 
86.75 
26.31 
30-44 
89.19 
25.06 
29.87 
4.8.^0 

0.52 
65.21 
0.25 
65oO 
65-67 
0.17 
69.71 
65.24 
J.^.10 

90.23 
43-67 
69.54 
95-38 
57.50 
62.03 
76.36 

51.31 
4.7.OO 

White  Albumen 

Pink 

Yolk  .  . 

White  Albumen    

Pink 
Yolk  

4 (NOTE — The  analytical  work  was  done  by  Mr.  L.  J.  Cross  of  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Chemis- 
try at  Cornell  University. 

We  have  already  seen  in  the  concentric  layers  of  Sudan  III  colored 
yolk,  that  Sudan  III  does  not  stain  previous  deposits  into  which  there 
is  no  circulation  or  communication.  Now,  since  this  albumen  is 
white  before  being  influenced  by  incubation,  how  can  its  fat  be  colored 
unless  circulation  between  it  and  the  yolk  is  begun  when  the  egg  is  incu- 
bated? Also  the  facts  that  there  still  remains  after  twelve  days  of  incuba- 
tion practically  as  much  fat  as  in  the  fresh  yolk  and  that  the  yolk  still  has 
the  same  approximate  size  and  moisture  content,  tend  to  indicate  that 
the  fat  in  the  albumen  does  not  come  wholly  or  even  in  small  part  from  the 
yolk  itself.  The  natural  explanation  of  this  unexpected  condition  is  that 


80  COLOR   FEEDING 

the  fat  is  made  from  the  protein  in  the  albumen.  Attention  is  also 
called  to  the  presence  of  the  small  amount  of  protein  in  the  albumen  fed 
upon  by  the  embryo.  This  leads  us  to  question  whether  the  bulk  of 
nourishment  provided  for  the  embryo  is  in  the  form  of  protein  or  fat. 

An  opposite  result  pointing  to  the  same  conclusion  occurs  when  incubat- 
ing the  Rhodamine  Red  colored  eggs.  In  this  instance  the  soft  albumen  no 
longer  retains  the  pink  color  of  the  fresh  egg  but  becomes  a  light  yellow, 
resembling  the  yolk  in  appearance,  but  being  fine  grained.  (Plate  I,  B). 
As  the  colored  protein  is  changed  under  the  influence  of  incubation  it 
loses  its  color  entirely. 

The  infertile  egg  does  not  change  in  color  or  composition.  The  bands  of 
color  in  the  yolk  remain  as  in  the  fresh  egg  even  after  five  days  of  incubation. 

THE  CHICK 

The  feeding  of  these  dyes  does  not  impair  the  hatching  power  of  the 
eggs.  The  chicks  hatched  from  Sudan  III  colored  eggs  were  colored 
wherever  their  bodies  contained  fat,  especially  along  the  breast  and 
abdomen,  just  underneath  the  skin.  (Plate  I,  E).  The  yolk  in  the  day 
old  chick  still  contained  color,  indicating  that  some  fat  remained.  In  one 
chick,  twenty-four  hours  old,  the  coloring  of  the  yolk  was  concentrated 
around  the  outer  portion  of  the  yolk  sac  where  it  could  be  most  easily 
digested  and  assimilated.5  Analysis  showed  that  there  was  a  large  percent- 
age of  fat  remaining.  Except  for  a  slight  increase  in  the  percentage  of  pro- 
tein and  a  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  fat,  the  proportion  of  each  remains 
about  constant  while  the  yolk  is  being  absorbed.  The  moisture  content, 
also,  remains  practically  constant. 

Upon  withholding  food  from  Sudan  III  colored  chicks  till  four  days  of 
age  the  fat  tissues  in  the  body  were  used  up  in  developing  energy  and  heat. 
Consequently,  the  color  passed  away  and  was  lost. 

Since  the  color  leaves  the  albumen  of  the  Rhodamine  Red  colored  egg 
when  it  is  digested  for  the  use  of  the  embryo,  one  does  not  expect  to 
see  color  appear  conspicuously  in  the  chick.  This  is  true  except  for  a  very 
slight  tint  of  pink,  which  shows  in  the  down. 

THE  FLESH 

Sudan  III  was  also  fed  to  fattening  fowls.  The  exact  extent  and  amount 
of  the  fat  deposits  was  shown  by  the  pink  color.  The  color  did  not  show  up 

6Frank  R.  Lillie  explains  in  "The  Development  of  the  Chick"  page  225  the  feasibility 
of  the  contents  of  the  unabsorbed  yolk  in  the  day  old  chick  being  digested  and  assimilated 
by  a  special  glandular  and  absorbing  epithelium  surrounding  the  yolk  sac. 


BY   C.    A.    ROGERS  81 

in  layers  as  in  the  egg,  but  one  large  dose  served  to  color  all  previous 
deposits  of  fat  presumably  because  of  the  circulation  within  the  fat  tissues. 

The  same  condition  was  true  with  Rhodamine  Red.  It  colored  all  of 
muscle  tissues  a  bright  pink  whether  deposited  before  or  during  the  time  of 
feeding. 

THE  FEATHER 

After  noting  the  appearance  of  the  pink  tint  in  the  chick  down,  the  dye 
was  fed  daily  to  young  chicks  just  growing  their  first  feathers.  The  result 
was  a  decided  flesh  pink  color  in  the  plumage.  The  red  did  not  stain  those 
parts  of  the  feather  already  grown  but  only  that  portion  grown  while  Rho- 
damine Red  was  being  given.  When  the  chickens  were  about  four  weeks 
old  the  dye  was  withheld  for  seven  days.  After  this  the  new  feather  growth 
showed  no  color  until  the  dye  was  again  fed.  The  result  was  a  reappear- 
ance of  color  at  the  base  of  the  growing  feather.  A  broad  white  band, 
indicating  the  growth  for  the  days  during  which  the  dye  was  withheld, 
separated  the  two  areas  of  color.  It  also  shows  by  the  unevenness  of  the 
white  band,  that  different  feathers  have  different  rates  of  growth.  (Plate 
I,F.) 

When  fed  to  mature  fowls  while  molting,  the  new  feathers  were  tinted 
with  pink,  varying  in  density  with  the  amount  and  regularity  of  the  color 
feeding. 

The  work  here  described  is  but  the  beginning  of  this  study.  It  is  hoped, 
however,  that  it  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  numerous  and  varied  fields  in 
which  color  dyes  can  be  employed  in  the  study  of  physiological  develop- 
ment. 


POULTRY  HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE  ON 
THE  PROGENY  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  FOWL1 

BY    L.    C.    OPPERMAN 

Comparisons  of  different  types  of  Poultry  Houses  were  made  at  the 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experimental  Station  during  1907  and  1908.  Six 
styles  of  pens  were  used:  1.  Tight  house;  2.  Glass  front;  3.  Cloth 
front  hooded  roost;  4.  Open  front  hooded  roost;  5.  Cloth  front  without 
hooded  roost  and;  6.  Open  front  without  hooded  roost. 

It  is  evident  from  the  results  of  these  comparisons  that  the  influence  of 
the  type  of  construction  of  the  Poultry  House  is  not  very  noticeable  during 
the  pullet  year  of  the  first  generation.  Greater  differences  were  noticed 
between  the  hatching  power  of  the  eggs  of  different  individuals  than  of 
different  pens.  The  following  points  are  to  be  noted. 

(1)  That  all  pens  except  I  and  III  showed  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  total  eggs  hatched  during  the  second  year.     The  decrease  in  pens  I  and 
III  is  not  great  enough  to  be  of  importance  and  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
action  of  individual  hens'  eggs. 

(2)  That  the  eggs  from  the  fowls  in  pens  V  and  VI  produced  20  more 
chicks  from  every  hundred  than  did  those  from  the  fowls  in  pen  I.     A 
result  of  this  kind  proves  beyond  a  doubt  that  an  abundance  of  fresh  air, 
both  day  and  night,  and  free  access  to  yards  or  range  are  essential  factors 
in  the  production  of  fertile  eggs,  which  when  incubated  will  hatch  a  high 
percentage  of  vigorous  chicks. 

It  might  be  well  to  restate,  that  the  cock  birds  which  were  used  during 
the  first  year  were  used  the  second  year  also,  and  frequently  changed  from 
pen  to  pen,  which  would  make  this  factor  equal. 

THE  INFLUENCE  ON  THE  PROGENY 

The  influence  of  construction  on  the  vitality  of  the  developing  embryo 
and  the  progeny  are  the  most  important  phases  of  the  investigation.  The 
success  of  large  or  small  poultry  farms  depends  largely  on  the  vigor  and 
productive  power  of  the  breeding  stock.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  if  a 
certain  type  of  construction  has  an  influence  on  the  breeders  which  will 
tend  to  increase  the  number  of  total  eggs  hatched,  and  to  produce  strong, 
vigorous  chicks,  its  commercial  importance  is  inestimable. 
The  comparisons  on  this  basis  indicate  the  following  points: 


article  is  abstracted  from  Bulletin  No.  146  of  the  Maryland  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  College  Park,  Md.,  July,  1910. 


BY   L.    C.    OPPERMAN  83 

(1)  The  results  of  hatches  one  and  two  indicate  that  the  influence  of 
environmental  conditions  were  not  positive  enough  to  be  of  significance. 
The  percentage  of  deaths  to  total  chicks  for  hatch  one  would  show  that  the 
progeny  of  pen  I  (tight  house)  were  stronger  than  those  of  any  other  pen. 
While  the  above  statement  may  be  correct,  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
fact  that  the  offspring  from  the  six  experimental  houses  were  so  near  alike 
in  the  matter  of  vitality,  that  it  was  impossible  to  say  positively  which  one 
gave  the  best  results. 

(2)  That  for  hatch  three  there  is  a  noticeable  variation  in  favor   of 
pen  6.     It  is  also  apparent,  with  the  exception  of  pens  I  and  VI,  that  the 
mortality  was  greater  than  in  the  previous  broods.     This  increased  death 
rate  was  due  to  the  intense  hot  weather,  and  to  placing  this  hatch  in  yards 
which  had  been  used  by  a  previous  lot  of  chicks.     These  disadvantages, 
however,  were  shared  alike  by  all  pens. 

The  variations  as  mentioned  above  cannot  be  associated  with  the 
environmental  conditions.  This  point  is  made  clear  by  comparing  the  per- 
centage of  deaths  in  hatch  two  with  those  of  the  following  hatch.  Such  a 
comparison  would  show  that  the  death  rate  for  pen  I  in  hatch  three  was 
identical  to  that  of  hatch  two.  This  would  indicate  that  the  chicks  of  this 
pen  were  fully  as  vigorous  as  were  those  of  pen  VI.  Even  granting  that 
they  were  not,  their  percentage  of  deaths  is  so  much  less  than  that  of  the 
chicks  from  the  other  fresh-air  houses  that  it  is  impossible  to  charge  the 
results  of  this  hatch  to  housing  conditions. 

In  order  to  determine,  with  some  degree  of  certainty,  the  influence  of 
construction  on  the  offspring  of  pullets  of  the  first  generation,  the  conditions 
under  which  the  parent  stock  are  confined  would  have  to  be  of  a  more 
extreme  nature  than  was  the  case  in  this  experiment. 

THE  INFLUENCE  ON  THE  PROGENY  DURING  THE  SECOND  YEAR 
The  important  points  to  be  noted  in  the  brooding  record  of  the  second 
year  are : 

(1)  That  the  progeny  of  pen  VI  were  more  vigorous  than  those  of  any 
other  pen. 

(2)  That  the  offspring  from  the  tight  house  were  fully  as  resistant  as 
those  of  any  pen  except  VI.     This  would  indicate  that  the  parent  stock 
were  still  vigorous  in  spite  of  their  abnormal  housing  conditions.     All 
results  point  to  the  fact  that  the  most  desirable  conditions  for  maintaining 
the  vigor  and  productive  power  of  the  breeding  stock  are  those  found  in  the 
open-front  house  with  exposed  roost.     It  cannot  be  too  strongly  empha- 
sized, that  fresh  air  and  freedom  for  the  breeding  stock  are  very  essential  if 
the  poultryman  is  to  renew  his  flock  successfully. 


84  INFLUENCE   OF   THE    HOUSE   ON    SECOND    GENERATION 

SUMMARY 

The  following  conclusions  are  a  summary  of  the  data  obtained  from  the 
work  with  the  first  generation.  The  experiment  is  in  progress  at  the 
present  time,  and  will  be  continued  for  several  generations.  Future  results 
will  be  published  from  time  to  time  as  the  work  is  completed. 

(1)  The  cost  of  tight    double-walled  construction   is   greater   than 
that  of  any  other  type.     In  the  experiment  here  discussed  it  was  found 
that  the  fertility  and  hatching  quality  of  eggs  were  very  much  better  in 
fresh-air  houses  of  less  expensive  construction. 

(2)  The  fertility  and  hatching  quality  of  eggs  is  much  better  in  the 
open  and  cloth-front  houses,  where  the  fowls  are  allowed  free  access  to 
yards  or  range. 

(3)  The  progeny  of  fowls  in  fresh-air  houses,  having  free  access  to 
yards  or  range,  are  more  vigorous  than  those  of  the  fowls  which  are  main- 
tained in  houses  of  other  construction,  and  which  do  not  have  the  liberty 
of  the  yards  during  the  breeding  season. 


SOME    RECENT  EXPERIMENTS   IN   INCUBATION 

BY   JAMES    DRYDEN 

There  are  evidently  some  fundamental  differences  between  natural  and 
artificial  incubation. 

Believing  that  the  hen  held  the  secret  of  incubation,  our  first  work  was 
to  investigate  the  hen  to  discover,  if  possible,  the  fundamental  differences. 

When  we  began  incubation  work,  the  theory  was  widely  prevalent,  that 
the  failure  of  incubators  to  hatch  satisfactorily  was  due  to  improper 
ventilation  in  the  machine.  About  that  time  a  poultryman  in  Massa- 
chusetts wrote  me  a  letter  in  which  he  discussed  this  point  and  gave  it  as 
his  opinion,  that  an  excessive  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  incubators 
was  responsible  for  poor  results  in  hatching.  He  thought  better  ventilation 
was  needed  to  carry  off  the  carbonic  acid  gas.  He  further  stated  that 
where  incubators  were  used  for  hatching  chicks,  he  knew  of  no  poultry 
farms  in  his  section  of  the  country  that  had  been  successful  for  more  than 
three  years  in  succession. 

We  set  about  investigating  this  point.  This  was  at  the  Utah  Station. 
The  first  thing  to  do  was  to  find  out  how  much  carbonic  acid  gas  accumu- 
lated under  sitting  hens  and  in  incubators  during  incubation.  After  the 
chemist  had  made  a  long  series  of  tests,  it  was  discovered  that  instead  of 
there  being  an  injurious  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  incubators, 
there  was  actually  less  than  was  found  under  sitting  hens.  This  started  a 
new  line  of  investigation.  Is  there  less  ventilation  under  the  hen  than  in 
the  incubator;  and  is  carbonic  acid  gas  a  benefit  instead  of  an  injury? 
What  is  the  function,  if  any,  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  incubation? 

It  was  demonstrated  in  the  first  experiment  that  carbon  dioxide 
with  moisture  will  decompose  the  egg  shell.  Eggs  emptied  of  their 
contents  and  sealed  up  in  bottles  highly  charged  with  carbon  dioxide 
were  kept  moist  in  the  incubator,  throughout  the  incubation  period. 
When  taken  out  they  were  either  broken  down  or  readily  crumbled  to  pieces 
between  the  fingers.  Other  eggs  under  the  same  conditions,  but  without 
any  moisture  in  the  bottles,  showed  no  signs  of  disintegration,  the  shells 
being  apparently  unchanged.  They  were  hard  to  cut  with  a  pen  knife. 
Another  egg  emptied  of  its  contents,  filled  with  water  and  sealed  up  in  a 
bottle,  but  with  no  water  in  the  bottle,  was  decomposed  and  dissolved. 

The  conclusion  is  that  carbon  dioxide  will  weaken  or  decompose  the  shell 
when  it  comes  in  contact  with  water,  either  on  the  outside  or  inside  of  the 
shell.  It  looks  as  though  carbonic  acid  gas  has  an  important  function  to 


86  SOME   RECENT   EXPERIMENTS   IN   INCUBATION 

perform.  Is  it  the  hand  that  liberates  the  captive  chick?  Does  it  break 
down  the  prison  walls  and  give  life  and  liberty  to  the  prisoner? 

The  experiments  at  the  Guelph  Station  corroborate  the  Utah  tests, 
showing  more  carbon  dioxide  under  the  hens  than  in  incubators. 

The  next  point  to  determine  was  where  the  excess  gas  originated. 
Both  at  Utah  and  at  Guelph,  the  experiments  seemed  to  indicate  that  the 
excess  supply  came  from  the  hen  herself,  though  this  point  was  not  clearly 
demonstrated.  Apparently  the  hen  was  giving  off  carbon  dioxide.  Is  this 
the  secret  of  the  sitting  hen?  Is  this  the  missing  link? 

Following  up  this  lead,  we  endeavored  to  show  the  effect  of  adding 
carbon  dioxide  to  the  incubators.  Varying  amounts  were  added  to  different 
machines,  but  this  artificial  supply  seemed  to  injure  the  hatching.  Here 
was  a  little  set-back. 

Pursuing  this  work  along  another  line,  the  experiments  at  the  Guelph 
Station  showed  that  the  chicks  hatched  by  hens  contained  more  lime 
than  incubator  chicks.  They  showed  further  that  about  the  eleventh 
day  of  incubation,  (or  when  the  embryo  was  eleven  days  old),  there  was 
as  much  lime  in  the  embryo  as  there  was  originally  in  the  contents  of  the 
egg,  and  at  the  end  of  the  incubation  period  of  twenty-one  days  the  chicks 
contained  many  times  more  lime  than  was  originally  in  the  egg  contents. 
Remembering  the  Utah  tests  which  showed  that  carbon  dioxide  with 
moisture  decomposed  the  shell,  is  it  possible  that  while  weakening  the  shell 
to  allow  the  chick  to  make  its  escape,  it  at  the  same  time  liberates  the 
necessary  lime  for  the  body  of  the  growing  chick?  This  fact  was  deter- 
mined by  analysis  of  the  chicks. 

Now  a  German  experimenter  has  analyzed  the  shell  at  different  stages 
of  incubation,  and  concludes  that  the  shell  is  more  than  a  simple  protective 
device.  He  says:  "The  egg  shell  doubtless  shares  in  the  exchange  of 
material  of  the  egg  contents  during  the  incubation  of  the  chick.  The 
material  which  disappears  from  the  shell  doubtless  passes  into  the  interior 
of  the  egg.  As  to  what  way  this  "going  in"  (Absorption)  takes  place,  and 
what  chemical  changes  render  this  possible;  our  investigations  offer  no 
explanation.  But  he  intimates  the  possibility  of  carbon  dioxide  abund- 
antly produced  in  the  egg,  and  penetrating  through  the  shell  playing  an 
important  part  here. 

These  different  experiments  show: 

First — That  there  is  more  carbon  dioxide  under  sitting  hens  than  in 
incubators. 

Second — That  carbon  dioxide  with  moisture  decomposes  the  shell. 

Third — That  lime  disappears  from  the  shell  during  incubation. 


BY   JAMES    DRYDEN  87 

Fourth — That  the  chick  when  it  emerges  from  the  shell,  has  more  lime  in 
its  body  than  was  originally  in  the  contents  of  the  egg. 

Fifth — That  the  hen-hatched  chick  has  more  lime  than  the  incubator 
chick. 

Sixth — That  supplying  artificial  carbon  dioxide  to  incubators  apparently 
injures  the  hatch. 

Another  point  of  difference,  possibly  of  great  importance,  was  brought 
out  in  recent  experiments  at  the  Oregon  Station.  Chemical  determinations 
showed  the  presence  of  oil  on  egg  shells.  A  small  amount  was  found  on 
fresh  eggs.  About  the  same  amount  was  found  on  eggs  that  had  been 
incubated  artificially  for  two  weeks,  while  on  eggs  incubated  by  the  hen 
for  two  weeks  there  was  about  seven  or  eight  times  the  amount  of  oil. 
What  is  the  function  of  this  oil?  Does  it  hold  the  secret  of  sitting  hens? 
We  have  not  been  able  to  determine  what  part  this  oil  plays  in  incubation, 
owing  to  difficulties  in  applying  oil  artificially.  We  have  found  further 
that  by  taking  eggs  from  under  a  sitting  hen  and  putting  them  in  an  incuba- 
tor, the  oil  on  the  shell  disappears  in  large  part. 

Let  me  mention  another  point  where  incubators  and  hens  differ.  Eight 
or  nine  years  ago  in  the  Utah  Station,  we  found  by  weighing  a  great  many 
eggs  at  stated  periods  during  incubation,  that  the  incubator  eggs  lost  more 
weight  than  eggs  under  the  hen;  in  other  words,  incubators  dried  the  eggs 
more  than  did  the  hen.  This,  I  believe,  was  later  confirmed  by  the 
Guelph  Station.  The  Wrest  Virginia  Station  reported  some  results  that 
were  contradictory.  However,  at  the  Oregon  Station  it  was  found  that 
there  was  a  greater  loss  in  incubators  than  under  hens. 

This  fact  led  to  experiments  on  the  use  of  moisture  in  incubators,  and 
as  a  result,  most  incubator  makers  have  modified  their  directions  as  to 
moisture.  By  adding  moisture  to  the  machine  the  evaporation  of  the 
eggs  was  checked  and  by  checking  the  evaporation  with  moisture,  it  was 
found  that  the  chicks,  when  hatched,  had  greater  weight. 

Now  about  the  oil  that  the  hen  puts  on  the  egg.  Oil  on  the  shell  will 
check  evaporation.  It  may  serve  the  purpose  of  moisture  so  far  as  evapora- 
tion is  concerned.  This  no  doubt  explains  why  eggs  under  hens 
lose  less  weight  than  incubator  eggs. 

This  raises  another  question.  At  Guelph  there  was  found  what  was 
claimed  to  be  conclusive  evidence  that  there  is  a  greater  circulation  of 
air  under  the  sitting  hen  than  in  the  incubator,  but  the  fact  that  there  was 
less  evaporation  from  eggs  under  the  hen,  could  hardly  be  reconciled  with 
the  fact  that  there  was  greater  air  circulation  under  the  hen.  It  seems 
to  me  that  the  presence  of  oil  explains  this  point.  The  hen  gives  plenty 
of  ventilation  and  the  oil  prevents  too  great  evaporation;  but  the  oil 
may  have  other  important  functions  about  which  as  yet,  we  know  nothing. 


COMPARISON  OF  POULTRY-KEEPING  IN  EUROPE,  UNITED 
STATES  AND  CANADA 

BY   WIL   BROWN 

Head  of  Department  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  West  of  Scotland  Agricultural  College;    Secretary 
Departmental  Committee  on  Poultry  Breeding  in  Scotland  (1908-9) 

All  history  points  to  the  fact  that  progress  is  more  rapid  in  new  coun- 
tries or  states  than  in  old  whether  this  be  in  the  direction  of  commercial 
enterprise  or  along  other  lines. 

|§  In  comparing  the  present  status  of  the  industry  of  poultry  husbandry  in 
Europe,  United  States  and  Canada,  in  the  space  at  my  disposal,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  discuss  the  subject  only  in  generalities,  since  to  go  into  detail  would 
necessitate  a  thorough  and  complete  survey  of  the  whole  industry.  I 
want,  however,  not  only  to  point  out  the  general  differences  in  the  method 
employed,  but  at  the  same  time  to  indicate  how  these  differences  have  arisen 
and  to  show  that  this  branch  of  the  great  agricultural  art  is  subject  to  the 
same  laws  that  regulate  the  development  of  any  other  industry  or  work. 

The  real  substantial  cause  for  the  differences  in  the  methods  adopted  is 
summed  up  in  the  words  "old  versus  new  countries."  The  conditions 
prevailing  in  the  Eastern  States  of  America  differ  from  those  prevailing  in 
the  Western,  in  that  the  farms  are  older,  and  more  general  in  their  croppage. 
This  difference  in  condition  is  still  more  marked  between  the  Eastern 
States  of  America  and  Europe. 

The  industry  of  poultry-keeping  is  centuries  old  in  Europe,  more 
especially  in  some  countries,  such  as  France,  Belgium  and  the  United  King- 
dom and  it  may  be  said  that  the  most  important  factor  in  the  development 
and  advancement  of  the  work  has  been  evolved  by  a  more  general  distribu- 
tion among  a  multitude  of  producers,  the  majority  of  whom  are  small 
occupiers  of  land.  Poultry-keeping  has  been  and  always  will  be,  as  far  as 
one  is  able  to  judge  at  present,  a  side  issue  in  Europe,  except  in  a  few 
instances  as  found  in  France,  Belgium  and  parts  of  England,  where  it  is  in 
the  hands  of  specialists.  This  exception  is  found  only  in  one  branch  of  the 
work,  namely,  that  of  flesh  production,  but  this  is  only  a  small  proportion 
of  the  total  poultry  production  of  each  country. 

With  people  already  on  the  land,  and  making  their  livelihood  from  the 
crops  they  cultivate,  progress  has  been  made  in  poultry-keeping  by  con- 
sidering it  in  the  light  of  an  added  form  of  production.  Farmers  and  small 
holders  have  been  the  mainstay  in  the  past  and  all  our  endeavors  today  are 


BY    WIL    BROWN  89 

in  the  direction  of  increasing  production  under  these  conditions.  I  hold 
that  farmers  will  always  be  able  to  produce  more  cheaply  than  occupiers  of 
special  plants.  The  ideal  is  to  encourage  a  hundred  farmers  or  small 
holders  to  maintain  fifty  head  of  stock  apiece  upon  their  land,  rather  than 
for  one  worker  to  keep  five  thousand.  I  would  remind  you  that  it  is  the 
accumulated  production  of  millions  of  peasants  that  feeds  the  great  popula- 
tions of  Europe  and  were  we  dependent  on  poultry  farms  we  should 
starve. 

As  an  indication  of  the  truth  of  this  statement  I  may  mention  the  fact 
that  Russia  is  the  largest  exporting  country  of  eggs  and  poultry  in  the 
world,  and  that  production  in  her  case  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
peasants.  In  1911  Russia  exported  to  Britain  poultry  produce  to  the  value 
of  $18,213,258.40  in  addition  to  the  other  markets  that  she  supplied. 

Large  poultry  farms  have  been  tried  in  Europe,  but  have  failed,  and  this 
explains  why  intensification  of  culture  and  large  plants  are  ever  less  in  evi- 
dence on  this  side.  Not  only  have  such  farms  proved  a  failure  in  Europe, 
but  I  have  yet  to  hear  of  the  financial  success  of  any  farm  in  the  United 
States  or  Canada,  run  entirely  for  the  production  of  eggs  or  flesh  for  con- 
sumption. In  every  case  some  other  branch  is  introduced,  such  as  the  sale 
of  eggs  for  hatching,  day-old  chickens  or  stock  birds.  A  review  of  the 
balance  sheets  generally  shows  that  the  greater  part  of  the  profit  is  derived 
from  these  additional  sales. 

In  my  work  today  I  use  all  my  influence  to  prevent  the  establishment  of 
poultry  farms,  since  I  am  distinctly  skeptical  as  to  the  ultimate  success  of 
such  ventures. 

I  have  given  it  as  my  opinion  that  the  future  success  of  the  industry  in 
Europe,  depends  on  the  rate  of  increased  production  on  the  part  of  the 
farmers  and  small  holders,  and  I  would  go  still  farther  and  say  that  I  believe 
the  same  holds  good  for  America  and  Canada.  This  can  be  seen  even  at  the 
present  time  in  the  altered  conditions  of  farming.  In  the  Eastern  States 
general  agriculture  is  taking  the  place  of  more  specialized  cropping  as 
instanced  by  the  northern  movement  of  the  wheat  belt.  This  is  passing 
from  Minnesota  and  Dakota  into  Manitoba  and  Saskatchewan,  and  will,  if 
present  indications  prove  correct,  eventually  travel  westward  until  Alberta 
and  even  the  Peace  River  country  to  the  north  become  the  granary  of 
the  world.  As  the  farms  become  more  general  in  their  rotation  of  crops, 
the  industry  of  poultry-keeping  will  be  developed  side  by  side  with  other 
branches  of  the  work. 

Any  development  that  has  taken  place  in  Europe  has  been  by  evolution 
and  is  seen  in  greater  numbers  and  better  methods  on  existing  farms,  and, 


90  POULTRY    KEEPING    IN    EUROPE,    U.    S.    AND   CANADA 

moreover,  any  further  advancement  must,  in  my  opinion,  be  brought  about 
in  a  similar  way.  Much  has  already  been  accomplished  in  this  direction, 
since  the  Danish  and  Irish  poultry  industries  have  both  been  built  up  by  the 
farmers  and  small  holders  already  in  occupation  of  the  land,  and  followed 
as  a  supplementary  and  not  a  primary  branch  of  their  farm  operations. 

I  have  frequently  been  concerned  with  the  fact  that  greater  provision 
is  made  by  the  Federal  and  state  authorities  in  America  and  Canada,  for  the 
carrying  out  of  experimental  and  research  work,  than  is  the  case  in  Europe. 
I  may  state  that  practically  nothing  from  public  sources  is  spent  on  this  side 
and  that  the  industry  is  bound  to  suffer  on  this  account.  There  is  one 
explanation,  however,  that  occurs  to  me  in  this  connection  and  it  is  that 
there  is  less  need  for  research  work  in  Europe,  since  it  is  the  specialist  who 
requires  this  first  of  all,  and  it  is  only  when  methods  of  culture  become 
intensified  that  the  real  need  arises  for  the  solving  of  the  many  problems 
that  result  therefrom.  I  do  not  mean  to  infer  that  the  farmer  poultry- 
keeper  has  no  need  for  this  knowledge,  which  is  the  outcome  of  experimental 
and  research  work,  but  only  that  his  need  is  less  great. 

I  would  have  you  remember  that  there  has  always  been  large  production 
in  Europe,  and  therefore  any  increase  will  be  brought  about  slowly  and  only 
as  the  result  of  considerable  labor.  Owing  directly  to  this  fact  we  have 
found  that  the  first  work  to  be  performed  lay  in  the  direction  of  organization 
in  marketing.  Whenever  one  is  dealing  with  the  accumulated  produce  from 
a  large  number  of  producers  this  work  must  always  take  precedence.  How 
this  has  been  accomplished  I  want  to  explain  briefly,  using  Denmark  and 
Ireland  as  illustrations.  It  is  only  necessary  to  deal  briefly  with  the  past 
development  of  the  industry  in  these  countries,  since  a  mass  of  detail  with 
reference  to  the  general  management  is  out  of  the  province  of  this  paper. 

DENMARK 

Denmark,  with  its  population  of  nearly  2,500,000  people,  more  than 
half  of  whom  are  connected  with  agricultural  pursuits,  is  a  country  of  small 
farms,  the  majority  of  the  holdings  being  not  more  than  50  acres  in  extent. 
The  importance  of  the  industry  to  the  country  is  indicated  by  its  univer- 
sality. Poultry  is  seen  everywhere. 

The  winter  climate  conditions  are  unfavorable  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  country,  and  labor  is  scarce,  being  provided  by  the  members  of  the 
family  without  outside  aid,  therefore  the  number  of  birds  maintained  on 
the  land  is  not  so  great  as  might  be  expected.  The  great  majority  of 
farmers  do  not  keep  more  than  30-50  laying  hens  and  the  number  of  fowls 
to  the  acre  is  small. 


BY    WIL    BROWN  91 

Prior  to  1878  when  the  Danish  Poultry  Society  was  formed,  the  poultry 
produce  was  usually  bartered  for  groceries  at  the  village  store  and  the  prices 
were  small,  two  eggs  being  sold  for  a  cent  in  the  summer  and  two  for  five 
cents  in  the  winter.  The  primary  object  of  the  Danish  Poultry  Society  was 
to  improve  the  breed  of  poultry  kept,  since  the  Land  hen,  the  native  breed 
of  the  country,  proved  unsuitable  for  the  work  of  increasing  egg  production. 
The  first  exhibition  held  under  the  auspices  of  this  Society  was  at  Aarhus, 
Gutland,  in  1879. 

This  native  breed  might  have  been  made  useful  by  breeding  from  selected 
specimens,  but  it  was  thought  that  results  would  be  obtained  more  rapidly 
and  easily,  by  the  adoption  of  a  race  of  higher  fecundity.  Ultimately  the 
Italian  or  Leghorn  was  accepted  as  best  suited  to  the  country. 

From  1878  onward  the  growth  of  the  industry  was  rapid.  Distance 
from  the  profitable  market — namely,  Britain,  since,  with  the  exception  of 
Copenhagen,  there  are  no  large  centres  of  population  in  Denmark — made  it 
an  essential  part  of  the  work  to  organize  the  whole  system  of  marketing.  It 
was  not  until  1894,  however,  that  the  question  was  taken  up  in  a  practical 
manner,  and  the  Danish  Farmers'  Co-operative  Egg  Export  Association  was 
formed.  To  the  work  of  this  Society  may  be  attributed  the  enormous 
development  of  the  Danish  egg  trade. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  total  poultry  crop  of  the  country  is  in  value 
about  $14,400,000,  annually,  or  some  $5.75  per  head  of  the  population.  Of 
this  total,  produce  to  the  value  of  $7,200,000  is  exported  at  present,  of 
which  about  99%  is  shipped  to  Britain.  Prices  have  risen  from  $1.50  per 
120  eggs  in  1890  to  $2.44  in  1911. 

IRELAND 

The  development  of  the  Irish  poultry  industry  is  of  more  recent  date 
than  in  Denmark,  since  a  commencement  was  made  only  some  twenty-five 
years  ago.  The  history  of  the  progress  in  this  instance  is  even  more 
interesting  than  in  the  case  cited  above.  This,  too,  is  a  demonstration  of 
the  universal  keeping  of  fowls  on  the  farms  or  small  holdings  of  the  country. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  in  1887  the  total  export  value  of  eggs  and  flesh 
from  Ireland  amounted  to  $7,744,000  and  by  1909  this  had  increased  by 
over  $10,000,000  as  shown  by  the  total  for  that  year,  namely,  $17,878,400. 
The  total  production  of  the  country  is  reckoned  as  follows: 

Export    $17,878,400.00 

Parcel  Post  Trade 192,000.00 

Feathers  158,246.40 

Home  Consumption  5,703,513.60 

Total  for  1909 $23,932,160.00 


92         POULTRY  KEEPING  IN  EUROPE,  U.  S.  AND  CANADA 

The  position  in  Ireland  at  present  is  that  the  industry  has  not  received 
the  same  attention  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  in 
County  Kildare  (Leister)  only  some  729  birds  are  kept  on  the  1000  acres  of 
cultivated  land,  whereas  in  County  Armagh  (Ulster)  upwards  of  3,300  are 
maintained  on  the  same  area.  If  the  whole  country  develops  to  the  same 
extent  as  County  Armagh,  it  will  mean  increasing  the  poultry  output  by 
100%,  or  allowing  that  this  is  not  probable  in  the  near  future,  if  I  say  that  if 
each  province  came  up  to  the  standard  of  Ulster,  with  2,558  birds  to  the 
1,000  acres,  it  would  have  the  effect  of  increasing  the  poultry  production 
by  upwards  of  50%. 

I  find  that  the  value  of  the  industry  represents  $5.34  per  head  of  the 
population,  and  in  all  probability  this  will  be  advanced  to  $8.00  in  the  near 
future  and  perhaps  to  nearly  $11.00  after  another  decade  has  passed. 

The  remarks  made  concerning  marketing  in  Denmark  apply  to  Ireland, 
since  the  success  of  the  work  is,  in  a  great  measure,  the  outcome  of  the 
endeavors  put  forward  by  the  Irish  Agricultural  Organization  Society. 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

I  have  referred  more  or  less  at  length  to  the  present  position  of  the 
industry  in  Denmark  and  Ireland,  and  in  conclusion  I  desire  to  say  just 
a  few  words  relative  to  the  state  of  affairs  in  Great  Britain. 

It  may  be  stated  that  we  are  today  in  practically  the  same  position  as 
was  Denmark  25  years  ago.  We  are  just  at  the  beginning  and  I  can  only 
express  my  belief  that  by  working  along  similar  lines,  we  shall  be  able  to 
develop  the  industry  here  as  it  has  been  advanced  in  the  countries  used  as 
illustrations.  With  the  larger  centers  of  population  in  England  the  value 
of  the  poultry  output  per  head  is  not  likely  ever  to  reach  the  figures  for  Den- 
mark and  Ireland.  But  there  is  no  reason  why  Wales  and  Scotland  should 
not  take  their  place  as  producing  instead  of  consuming  countries.  The 
present  value  stands  at  $1.30  per  head  of  the  population. 

The  following  figures  in  round  numbers  may  prove  of  interest: 

TOTAL   CONSUMPTION   IN   GREAT  BRITAIN— 1910 

Foreign  Produce $45,000,000.00 

Irish  Produce 1 5,000,000.00 

Home  Produce   45,000,000.00 


Total $105,000,000.00 

TOTAL  CONSUMPTION  IN  SCOTLAND — 1910 

Foreign  and  Irish    $10,400,000.00 

Home    5,000,000.00 


Total $15,400,000.00 


BY    WIL    BROWN  93 

The  marketing  organization  is  in  the  hands  of  the  English  Agricultural 
Organization  Society,  The  National  Poultry  Organization  Society  and  the 
Scottish  Agricultural  Organization  Society.  Conspicuous  success  has 
attended  their  efforts  in  the  past. 

All  that  remains  to  be  said  to  conclude  this  brief  summary  of  the  poultry 
industry  in  Europe,  is  that  I  believe  the  success  that  has  been  attained  in 
the  past  fully  justifies  the  contention  that  this  industry  is  one  that  should  be 
worked  in  conjunction  with  the  general  farm  operations,  not  only  so  that 
the  supplies  may  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands,  but  that  the  agricul- 
tural community  as  a  whole  may  be  benefitted  by  the  following  of  an 
occupation  that  is  highly  profitable. 


AN  OUTLINE  FOR  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  POULTRY 

HUSBANDRY 

PRESENTED  BY  JAMES  E.  RICE  FOR  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  INSTRUCTION 

The  successful  teaching  of  Poultry  Husbandry  depends  upon  three 
factors :  the  teacher,  the  method  and  the  facilities.  The  greatest  of  these 
is  the  teacher.  The  chief  aim  of  a  teacher  is  to  inspire  interest  on  the  part 
of  the  student,  or,  as  Professor  I.  P.  Roberts  has  tersely  expressed  it,  "to 
get  the  student  to  want  something  and  to  want  it  badly;"  or,  as  Professor 
T.  F.  Hunt  expresses  it,  "interest  is  the  digestive  juice  of  successful  teach- 
ing;" or,  as  Director  L.  H.  Bailey  has  said  it  "telling  is  not  teaching." 
Each  of  these  successful,  well-known  educators  has  realized  the  same 
objective  point  in  teaching  and  all  have  been  eminently  successful  in  their 
application  of  the  principle.  Their  success  and  my  own  observation  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  personality  of  the  teacher  is  at  least  of  equal  and 
usually  of  greater  importance  than  the  subject  matter  taught. 

It  is  the  teacher's  obligation  not  only  to  furnish  the  most  reliable 
information,  or  to  point  out  the  way  by  which  a  student  can  secure  the 
facts  and  principles  on  which  successful  poultry  husbandry  is  based,  but 
also  to  move  him  to  want  to  put  the  acquired  knowledge  into  effective 
application,  to  kindle  within  him  the  desire  for  more  knowledge.  This 
means  that  the  teacher  must  arouse  personal  initiative  on  the  part  of  the 
student.  When  a  student  studies  diligently,  persistently  and  enthusiasti- 
cally by  his  own  motive  power,  the  teacher's  chief  purpose  has  been 
accomplished.  To  acquire  facts  and  principles  and  to  know  how  to  apply 
them  is  important,  but  to  acquire  the  ability  to  go  after  things  indepen- 
dently and  to  work  without  being  led  or  driven  is  still  more  important  in 
successful  teaching. 

The  method  by  which  the  subject  is  classified,  simplified,  emphasized 
and  illustrated  will,  of  necessity,  play  an  important  part.  The  fact  that 
Poultry  Husbandry,  as  a  subject  to  be  taught  and  investigated,  is  so  new, 
and  that  so  little  has  been  done  in  arranging  the  known  facts  so  that 
principles  of  general  application  can  be  made  and  presented  in  good  teach- 
ing form  or  pedagogical  order  (to  use  a  more  technical  term),  makes  it 
exceedingly  difficult  to  teach  the  subject  as  it  should  be  taught.  Each 
one  who  is  endeavoring  to  teach  Poultry  Husbandry  is  obliged  to  blaze  out 
his  own  independent  trail  and  to  hew  out  the  principles  as  best  he  may 
while  endeavoring  to  carry  on  the  other  strenuous  activities  of  a  growing 
department. 


BY    JAMES   E.   RICE  95 

The  nature  and  extent  of  the  material  with  which  to  teach;  that  is  to 
say,  the  buildings,  the  land,  the  stock  and  equipment,  all  have  much  to 
do  with  the  effectiveness  of  teaching  and  especially  with  the  comfort,  peace 
of  mind  and  satisfaction  of  the  teacher  and  students.  While  that  famous 
educator,  Elihu  Yale,  undoubtedly  was  right  in  principle  when  he  said  that 
"a  good  teacher  on  one  end  of  a  log  and  a  good  student  on  the  other  consti- 
tutes a  University,"  he  also  very  likely,  fully  recognized  the  importance  of 
adequate  buildings  and  equipments,  but  desired  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
they  are  not  the  chief  consideration. 

We,  who  are  now  engaged  in  teaching  Poultry  Husbandry,  are  not 
likely  to  make  the  mistake  of  assuming  that  good  land,  buildings  and 
equipment  are  more  important  than  good  teachers  if  we  should  have  the 
chance  to  enjoy  the  refreshing  experience  of  handling  a  Poultry  Department 
having  ample  facilities  with  which  to  teach  and  investigate.  We  are 
willing  to  take  our  chances.  We  all  know  from  experience,  how  serious  a 
handicap  to  our  teaching  and  investigating  is  the  lack  of  suitable  facilities. 
One  item  alone,  that  of  land,  deserves  our  thoughtful  consideration  and 
vigorous  action  at  this  time.  Scarcely  a  Poultry  Department,  as  now 
organized  and  equipped,  has  sufficient  land  with  which  to  carry  on  the 
work  successfully.  Those  in  authority  must  be  made  to  realize  that  there 
is  a  wide  distinction  between  a  poultry  plant  and  a  poultry  farm  and  that 
the  latter  and  not  the  former  will  provide  the  kind  of  object  lesson  that 
will  make  it  necessary  for  us  to  say  to  our  students,  "do  as  we  teach  you  to 
do,  not  as  we  do  ourselves."  We  must  have  more  positive  teaching  and  less 
negative  teaching;  more  showing  how  to  do  and  less  telling  what  to  do;  more 
practice  and  less  precept;  more  affirmation  and  less  apology.  Instead  of 
one  to  five  acres  of  land,  a  modern  poultry  department  should  have  from 
twenty  to  fifty  acres  and  a  good  proportion  of  that  amount  near  the  College 
buildings,  where  students  can  come  in  actual  contact  with  the  things  about 
which  they  are  being  taught.  The  poultry  farm  should  be  looked  upon  as 
an  outdoor  laboratory  of  equal  or  greater  importance  than  our  lecture  rooms 
and  offices,  indispensible  though  they  are  to  a  well  organized  poultry 
department.  The  things  that  the  students  do  for  themselves  are  the 
things  that  they  remember.  To  thoroughly  understand  a  principle  the 
student  should  apply  it.  Success  lies  in  the  proper  application  of  what  we 
know.  The  best  place  for  students  to  apply  the  principles  taught  is  in 
connection  with  the  lecture  or  demonstration. 

It  should  not  be  inferred,  however,  that  the  Poultry  Department  can 
provide  sufficient  technical  or  practical  training  to  provide  expertness. 
Skill  can  be  acquired  only  after  years  of  practical  application.  The  Col- 


96   AN  OUTLINE  FOR  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

lege,  however,  can  and  should  provide  the  opportunity  for  sufficient  prac- 
tice to  enable  the  student  to  understand  the  principles  involved  so  that  he 
may  put  them  into  application  when  he  has  left  College. 

In  presenting  for  your  consideration  an  outline  for  a  course  of  study  in 
Poultry  Husbandry,  it  should  be  understood  that  the  Committee  fully 
realizes  the  fact  that  no  outline  of  subjects  for  lectures,  laboratory  work, 
practice  courses  of  advanced  courses  will  meet  the  requirements  of  all 
colleges  or  schools.  A  theoretically  correct  course  of  study  must  be  varied, 
more  or  less,  to  meet  the  various  existing  conditions  to  be  found  wherever 
the  subject  of  Poultry  Husbandry  is  taught. 

The  personal  experience,  education  and  natural  qualifications  of  the 
teacher;  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  land,  buildings  and  equipment; 
the  time  of  year  when  the  subject  is  taught;  the  amount  of  time  that 
students  can  profitably  give  to  the  subject;  the  type  of  poultry  farming  in 
the  territory  from  which  students  are  drawn;  the  age,  educational  qualifi- 
cations and  experience  of  the  students,  all  are  factors  that  enter  into  a 
consideration  of  what  a  course  in  Poultry  Husbandry  should  consist. 
A  teacher  will  unconsciously  emphasize  those  divisions  of  the  subject 
with  which  he  is  most  familiar  or  which  he  is  best  qualified  to  teach. 
One  whose  experience  and  qualifications  lie  in  the  field  of  breeding,  judging 
and  exhibiting  fancy  poultry  will  quite  naturally  be  likely  to  lay  greater 
stress  on  these  phases  of  the  subject  than  one  whose  chief  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  production  of  eggs  or  poultry  for  market.  One  who  has  had 
much  experience  as  a  salesman  or  bookkeeper  will  be  likely  to  emphasize 
commercial  aspects  of  the  subject,  such  as  marketing  and  accounting. 

The  facilities  for  teaching  frequently  determine  whether  or  not  certain 
important  subjects  shall  be  taught  or  how  they  shall  be  taught.  For 
example,  the  lack  of  proper  buildings,  equipment,  etc.,  for  holding  poultry 
shows;  for  fitting  fowls  for  exhibition;  for  brooding;  for  fattening;  for 
storage  of  poultry  products;  for  killing,  picking  and  packing  poultry,  etc., 
have  been  the  determining  factors  that  have  decided  whether  much  or  little 
attention  should  be  given  to  that  particular  branch. 

A  course  of  instruction  must,  of  necessity,  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  students.  Persons  taking  a  short  course  in  Poultry  Husbandry  and 
having  constantly  in  mind  the  immediate  practical  application  of  the 
principles  taught  and  with  only  a  limited  amount  of  time  in  which  to  cover 
the  subject,  will  enthusiastically  give  their  whole  attention  to  the  course. 
Many  regular  four  year  college  students  desiring  to  specialize  in  Poultry 
Husbandry  with  the  expectation  of  entering  college  work  will  want  to  go 
into  the  subject  deeply  while  others,  who  elect  Poultry  Husbandry  will  do 


BY   JAMES    E.    RICE  97 

so  expecting  to  keep  only  a  small  farm  flock.  Manifestly,  the  same  course 
or  courses  cannot  be  made  to  fit  the  needs  of  each  of  these  three  classes  of 
students.  Therefore,  the  factors  enumerated  and  many  others  must  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  determining  the  scope  of  a  course  and  the 
amount  of  attention  that  properly  may  be  given  to  each  division  of  the 
subject. 

One  feature  of  general  application  to  all  courses,  however,  is  that  they 
should  be  symmetrical;  that  is,  well  balanced  to  suit  the  special  needs  of 
the  students  to  be  taught,  in  so  far  as  this  is  possible  under  existing  condi- 
tions. 

Another  factor  of  great  importance,  which  should  be  considered  in 
blocking  out  a  course  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  is  the  arrangement  of  the 
topics  in  a  logical  order  of  sequence,  or  pedagogical  order.  This  works  out 
satisfactorily  in  theory,  but  frequently  it  is  impossible  of  execution,  due  to 
the  exigencies  in  administration,  entirely  beyond  the  teacher's  control. 
For  example,  it  might  be  desirable,  from  the  teaching  standpoint,  to  arrange 
a  course  so  that  the  students  would  learn  the  underlying  principles  in  a 
progressive  order,  as  follows:  (1)  The  Structure  of  the  Egg;  (2)  The 
Development  of  the  Chick;  (3)  The  Anatomy  of  Poultry;  (4)  The  Phy- 
siology of  Poultry;  (5)  The  External  Characters  of  Poultry;  (6)  The 
Judging  of  Poultry  for  the  Fancy;  (7)  The  Judging  of  Poultry  for  Market, 
etc. 

However,  in  the  actual  application  of  the  principle  of  a  logical  sequence, 
other  factors  must  be  given  full  consideration  in  determining  the  order  in 
which  a  subject  shall  be  taught.  It  is  always  exceedingly  important  that 
the  demonstration  and  handicraft  work  shall  accompany  or  closely  follow 
the  lectures  and  text  book  study.  If  the  course  is  to  consist  entirely  of 
lectures,  text  book  study  and  recitations,  any  arrangement  of  the  subjects 
which  the  teacher  may  prefer  generally  is  possible.  However,  when  the 
subject  is  to  be  taught  in  part  by  laboratory  and  practice  courses  such 
disturbing  factors  as  financial  expediency,  marketing  facilities,  climatic 
conditions,  etc.,  frequently  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  For 
example,  the  subject  of  killing,  picking  and  packing  poultry  might  well 
come  near  the  close  of  a  course,  but  a  large  number  of  chickens  on  hand 
to  be  killed  in  the  fall  of  the  year  and  with  no  room  in  which  to  house  them 
until  spring  and  no  available  funds  with  which  to  purchase  stock  at  the 
prevailing  high  prices  later  in  the  year,  may  justify  the  teaching  of  the 
subject  of  preparing  poultry  for  market  early  in  the  course.  The  subject 
of  embryology  should,  without  question,  precede  incubation,  and  both  of 
the  subjects  might,  with  good  reason,  come  early  in  a  one  year  course,  but 


98       AN  OUTLINE   FOR    A    COURSE   OF   STUDY    IN   POULTRY    HUSBANDRY 

the  practical  difficulties  of  teaching  these  subjects  during  the  fall  and 
winter  months,  as  regards  high  cost  of  eggs,  the  production  of  fertile, 
hatchable  eggs,  and  the  difficulties  of  brooding  the  chickens,  frequently  are 
the  determining  factors  that  decide  the  time  when  that  phase  of  the  subject 
shall  be  taught.  Poultry  Departments,  like  humans,  may  be  obliged,  at 
times,  to  follow  the  lines  of  least  resistance  and  hatch  and  rear  chickens 
when  they  can  be  reared  most  economically  and  advantageously,  which, 
in  this  instance,  fortunately,  is  the  time  when  the  students  would  be 
expected,  ordinarily  in  practice  on  their  own  farms,  to  rear  them. 

The  courses  here  outlined  consist  of  a  lecture  course  and  a  laboratory 
course  to  be  taken  together;  seven  practice  or  handicraft  courses  which 
should  accompany  or  follow  the  lecture  and  laboratory  courses,  and  six 
advanced  courses  which  should  follow  those  already  named. 

It  will  be  observed  that  equal  importance  is  given  to  the  laboratory  and 
practice  courses  as  compared  to  the  lectures,  text  book  and  recitation  type 
of  teaching.  This  has  been  done  because  of  the  belief  that  theory  and 
practice  should  go  "hand  in  hand"  and  should  be  given  in  about  equal 
proportion  in  the  teaching  of  a  subject  like  Poultry  Husbandry,  where 
success  or  failure  depends,  to  so  large  an  extent,  upon  the  skill  with  which 
the  theory  is  applied. 

The  outline  of  a  six  hour  lecture  and  laboratory  course  of  study,  which 
is  here  presented,  is  intended  to  carry  two  lectures  and  one  laboratory 
exercise  each  week  throughout  a  college  year  of  about  thirty -six  weeks. 
This  allows  for  several  days  on  which  preliminary  examinations  may  be 
held. 

The  course  here  presented  fits  very  appropriately  a  twelve  weeks  course 
during  which  six  lectures  and  three  laboratory  periods  are  held  each  week. 

Shorter  courses  can  be  arranged  satisfactorily  by  selecting  as  many  of 
the  more  important  topics  as  will  best  meet  the  requirements. 

All  that  has  been  said  is  intended  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  a  modern, 
successful  course  in  Poultry  Husbandry  must,  of  necessity,  be  the  result  of 
a  series  of  compromises  and  adjustments  that  will  best  meet  the  needs  of 
the  students  and  enable  a  Department  to  exist  within  a  fixed  appropria- 
tion. It  is  clear,  however,  that  in  arranging  our  courses,  our  constant  aim 
should  be  the  welfare  of  our  students.  As  our  work  progresses  "we  will  more 
and  more  be  able  to  eliminate  financial  expediency  and  hew  closely  to  the 
line  of  greatest  efficiency  in  teaching. 


BY   JAMES    E.    RICE  99 

I.    THE   LECTURE  COURSE 

A.     General  Considerations.     (1) 

1.  Definitions  and  classification  of  the  subject  and  place  of  poultry 
in  the  animal  kingdom. 

B.     Bibliography.     (2) 

2.  Poultry  books. 

3.  Poultry  bulletins. 

C.     Anatomy  and  Physiology.     (2) 

4.  Anatomy  and  physiology.* 

*( Recommended  to  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  course  in  histology,  anatomy, 

physiology,  digestion,  etc.) 

5.  Anatomy  and  physiology.     Development  of  the  egg  and  study  of 
the  egg. 

D.     Breeds.     (5) 

6.  Origin,  history  and  characteristics.     (Asiatics  and  Americans.) 

7.  Origin,  history  and  characteristics.     (Mediterraneans  and  other 
classes.) 

8.  Commercial  meat  and  egg  types. 

9.  Selection  of  fowls  for  constitutional  vigor. 

10.  Judging  systems.     (Score  card,  decimal  and  comparison.) 

E.     Exhibition  of  Poultry.     (2) 

11.  Methods  of  organization  in  conducting  poultry  shows. 

12.  Preparing  poultry  for  exhibition. 

F.  Breeding.*     (5) 

*  (Recommended  to  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  a  course  in  animal  breeding.) 

13.  Principles  of  breeding,  inheritance,  variation,  and  selection  for 
breeding. 

14.  Double  and  single  mating  and  line-breeding. 

15.  In-breeding  and  crossing. 

16.  Pure  breeds  versus  cross-breeds,  mongrels,  etc. 

17.  Building  up  utility  strains  for  egg  and  meat  production. 

G.  Housing.*     (7) 

*  (Recommended  to  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  a  course  in  wood  working.) 

18.  Locating  and  laying  out  the  poultry  house. 

19.  Materials  for  construction. 

20.  Principles  of  poultry  house  construction,  size,  shape,  walls,  roofs, 
floors  and  windows. 

21.  Ditto. 

22.  Interior  arrangements. 

23.  Types  of  hous<p  and  cost  of  applying  the  principles  in  construction* 

24.  Auxiliary  buifaings,  feed  houses,  fattening  house,  etc. 


100  AN  OUTLINE  FOR  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

H.     Feeding.*     (7) 

*  (Recommended  to  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  a  course  in  animal  nutrition.) 

25.  Principles  of  nutrition  and  relation  to  food  of  the  animal. 

26.  The  foods  and  their  composition  and  adaptability. 

27.  Balancing  rations  and  estimating  cost. 

28.  Rations  and  methods  of  feeding  for  egg  production. 

29.  Rations  and  methods  of  feeding  for  egg  production. 

30.  Rations  and  methods  of  feeding  for  fattening. 

81.     Rations  and  methods  of  feeding  for  growing  chickens. 

I.     Incubation.*     (5) 

*  (Recommended  to  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  a  course  in  embryology.) 

32.  The  development  of  the  chick. 

33.  Incubation,  artificial  and  natural. 

34.  Incubation,  artificial  and  natural. 

35.  Principles  of  incubation,  temperature,  moisture,  ventilation,  cool- 
ing, turning,  testing,  etc. 

36.  Principles  of  incubation,  temperature,  moisture,  ventilation,  cool- 
ing, turning,  testing,  etc. 

J.     Brooding.     (3) 

87.  Principles  of  brooding,  temperature,  ventilation,  size,  cost,  porta- 
bility, etc. 

38.  Principles  of  brooding,  temperature,  ventilation,  size,  cost,  porta- 
bility, etc. 

89.     Brooding  systems,  natural  and  artificial. 

K.     Marketing.     (5) 

40.  The  man  and  the  markets,  wholesale  and  retail. 

41.  Fixing  prices  and  securing  the  trade. 

42.  Preparing  for  market,  killing  and  packing. 

43.  Preparing  for  market,  grading  and  packing. 

44.  Packages,  shipping  and  preservation. 

L.     Sanitation,  Parasites  and  Diseases.*     (6) 

*  (Recommended  to  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  a  course  in  economic  entomology 

and  animal  pathology.) 

45.  Germ  life  and  methods  of  disease  prevention. 

46.  Methods  of  sanitation. 

47.  Contagious   and   infectious   diseases. 

48.  Digestion  and  reproduction,  respiration  and  diseases. 

49.  External  and  internal  poultry  parasites. 

50.  Poultry  enemies. 


BY  JAMES    E   RICE  101 

M.     Poultry  Farm  Management.*     (11) 

*  (Recommended  to  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  a  course  in  farm  management  and 

farm  crops.) 

51.  Combinations  of  poultry,  and  general  and  other  kinds  of  farming. 

52.  Extensive  versus  intensive  poultry  farming. 

53.  Types  of  special  egg  farming. 

54.  Types  of  special  broiler  farming. 

55.  Types  of  special  roaster  farming,  (including  capons  and  caponizing.) 

56.  Poultry  farm  crops  and  rotations. 

57.  Poultry  farm  accounting. 

58.  Poultry  advertising,  correspondence,  etc. 

59.  Methods  of  getting  started  in  poultry  farming. 

60.  Extent  and  importance  of  poultry  husbandry. 

61.  Personal  requirements  and  opportunities  for  poultrymen. 

N.     Turkeys.     (2) 

62.  Breeds  and  Breeding. 

63.  Management. 

O.     Ducks.     (1) 

64.  Breeds,  breeding,  and  management. 

P.     Geese.     (1) 
65.     Breeds,  breeding  and  management. 

Q.     Pigeons.     (1) 
66.     Breeds,  breeding  and  management. 

R.     Caponizing 

(Optional  in  place  of  one  of  the  above) 

Lectures  from  sixty-two  to  sixty-six  could  easily  be  expanded,  condensed 
or  eliminated  to  suit  existing  conditions. 

II.    THE  LABORATORY  COURSE 
A .     Nomenclature .     ( 1 ) 

1.  Naming  the  parts  of  poultry  from  outline  and  live  fowls.* 

*(Poultry  plant  inspection  can  appropriately  precede  or  accompany  this  practictira.) 

B.     Anatomy  and  Physiology.     (2) 

2.  Dissection  of  various  types  and  classes  of  poultry  to  study  internal 
and  external  characters  and  digestive  system. 

3.  Study  of  the  structure  of  the  egg. 


102    AN   OUTLINE   FOR   A   COURSE   OF   STUDY   IN   POULTRY   HUSBANDRY 

C.     Breeds.     (5) 

4.  Breed  types  and  variety  characteristics. 

5.  Utility  types,  for  egg  production,  roasters,  fryers,  broilers,  etc. 

6.  Judging  for  constitutional  vigor,  age,  weight,  sex,  etc. 

7.  Judging  Asiatics  and  Americans. 

8.  Judging  Mediterraneans  and  others. 

D.     Exhibiting.     (4) 

9.  Fitting  poultry  for  exhibition. 

10.  Cooping  and  exhibiting. 

11.  Judging  and  management. 

12.  The  poultry  show,  management,  institute  and  journalism  and 
holding  a  show. 

E.  Breeding.     (1) 

13.  Mating  up  breeding  fowls.     (Visit  near  by  flocks.) 

F.  Housing.     (6) 

14.  Poultry  house  measurements. 

15.  Laying  out  and  cutting  rafters  and  estimating  materials. 

16.  Laying  out  and  estimating  the  foundation. 

17.  Making  concrete  foundation  floors,  walks,  posts,  etc. 

18.  Construction  of  poultry  houses. 

19.  Construction   of   poultry   houses.     (Making   the   poultry   house 
appliances,  putting  together  model  for  full  size  poultry  house  could  be 
substituted  for  18  and  19,  depending  upon  weather,  financial  and  other 
conditions.) 

G.  Feeding.     (2) 

20.  Study  of  feeds. 

21.  Mixing  to  show  mechanical  condition.     (Practice  course  could  be 
given  in  addition  to  the  lecture  and  laboratory  practicums,  one  hour  feeding 
for  eggs,  one  hour  feeding  for  fattening,  one  hour  feeding  for  growth.) 

H.     Incubation.     (I) 

22.  Drawing  plans  of  incubators  and  answering  questions  regarding 
construction  or  study  of  the  egg  and  development  of  the  chick  as  shown  by 
tester. 

(Practice  course  in  connection  with  lectures  and  laboratory  in  study  of 
incubators  under  operation  should  be  taken  for  one  hour.) 

I.     Brooding.     (1) 

(Practice  course  in  connection  with  lecture  course,  one  hour  study  of 
brooders  in  operation,  including  the  drawing  of  plans  of  brooders  and 
answering  questions  regarding  the  principles  of  construction.) 

J.     Marketing.     (4) 

23.  Killing,  picking,   shaping   and   packing,   drawing,  trussing,  etc. 
(Desirable  to  repeat.) 


BY  JAMES  E.   RICE  103 

24.  Judging  dressed  poultry. 

25.  Judging  eggs. 

26.  Cleaning,  candling,  grading  and  packing  eggs  for  market  and 
hatching. 

K.     Sanitation.     (2) 

27.  Making  and  applying  lice  powder. 

28.  Making  and  applying  disinfectants. 

L.     Poultry  Farm  Management.     (5) 

29.  Poultry  farm  accounting. 

30.  Poultry  farm  study  and  excursion. 

31.  Poultry  farm  study  and  excursion. 

32.  Laying  out  poultry  farms  and  estimating  capacity,  expenditure 
and  capacity. 

33.  Review  and  comparison  of  poultry  farm  plans  and  estimates. 
(Printed  instruction  and  explanation  regarding  32  and  33  should  be 

given  to  the  class  several  weeks  in  advance  of  the  time  when  they  are 
listed.) 

III.  PRACTICE  COURSES  IN  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Should  precede  or  accompany  the  three  hour  lecture  and  laboratory 
course.  Time  required  twenty-eight  weeks,  one  and  one-half  hour  each 
day,  total  credit  seven  hours  or  one  hour  for  each  course.  To  be  given 
morning,  noon  and  afternoon. 

1.  Practice  in  feeding  for  egg  production  and  preparation  of  eggs  for 
market. 

2.  Practice  in  feeding  for  fattening.     Cramming  pen  or  crate  fattening 
and  preparation  for  marketing. 

3.  Practice  in  feeding  young  chickens. 

4.  Practice  in  incubation.     Operating  an  incubator,   testing  eggs, 
removing  chicks,  disinfecting  the  machine  etc.,  or  care  of  sitting  hens. 

5.  Practice  in  brooding.     Operation  of  a  brooder  or  care  of  brooding 
hens. 

6.  Feeding  and  handling  water  fowl. 

7.  Poultry  farm  mechanics,  operating  gasolene  engine,  bone  cutter, 
grinder,  etc. 

IV.  ADVANCED  COURSES  IN  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

For  students  who  have  taken  the  three  hour  lecture  and  laboratory 
course  and  the  seven  hour  practice  courses. 

Consisting  of  two  one  hour  courses,  two  two  hour  courses  and  two  one  to 
three  hour  courses.  Total  eight  hours  minimum,  twelve  hours  maximum 
credit. 

1.  History  of  breeds  and  advance  judging.     Two  hours  credit,  one 
lecture  or  recitation  and  one  laboratory  each  week,  first  semester. 

2.  Poultry  Farm  Management.     Two  hours  credit,  one  lecture  or 
recitation  and  one  laboratory  each  week,  second  semester. 


104     AN    OUTLINE   FOR   A    COURSE  OF   STUDY    IN   POULTRY    HUSBANDRY 

3.  Poultry  Breeding.     One  to  two  hours  credit,  one  lecture,  recitation 
or  practicum  each  week,  first  semester. 

4.  Poultry  nutrition.     One  to  two  hours  credit,  one  lecture,  recitation 
or  practicum  each  week,  first  semester. 

5.  Poultry  Seminar.     One  to  three  hours  credit,  one  conference  and 
two  or  more  hours  study  each  week  on  special  problems,  and  poultry 
literature. 

6.  Poultry   Research.     One   to   three   hours   credit,   conference   by 
appointment  each  week,  and  two  or  more  hours  outlining  investigations 
and  reporting  on  special  research  projects  and  carrying  out  a  specific 
investigation. 

Other  specialized  courses  can  be  added  to  advantage  as  the  subject 
develops  if  the  teaching  enterprise  will  permit. 


SCHEDULE  OT  COURSES  IN  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY  AND  ALLIED  COURSES 
COVERING  Two  COLLEGE  YEARS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

First  Semester  Second  Semester 

Poultry  Course . .     (  Lectures 2         2 

(  Laboratory ....       i         I 

Feeding  Practice I         Incubator  Practice I 

Fattening  Practice I         Brooding  and  Feeding  chicks    .  .       i 


Number  of  hours 5 

Agricultural  Chemistry   3 

Anatomy  and  Physiology    3 

Animal  Nutrition   3 

Animal  Pathology    , 3 

Carpentry 

Number  of  hours 17 

Poultry  Breeds  and  Advanced  Judging     2 

Poultry  Nutrition 1-2 

Poultry  Seminary 1-3 

Bacteriology 3 

Number  of  hours 9 

Farm  Crops  3 

Fruit  Growing 3 

Rural  Economics 2 

Number  of  hours 17 


Embryology    3 

Animal  Breeding    3 

Economic  Enotmology    j 

Farm  Mechanics 


Poultry  Farm  Management ....       2 

Breeding  1-2 

Poultry  Research    1-3 


Farm  Management   3 

Fruit  Growing 3 

Good  Government  . 


Respectfully  submitted, 

JAMES  E.  RICE, 
W.  A.  BROWN, 
HOMER  JACKSON, 
GEO.  B.  MORSE. 


TEACHING   BY   FARM  TRAINS   AND   EDUCATIONAL 
EXHIBITS  AT  FAIRS 

BY    W.    A.    BROWN 

The  most  striking  and  important  feature  of  the  Modern  Farming  Special 
train,  which  completed  on  June  25th  a  trip  of  over  a  thousand  miles  on  the 
railroads  in  Maine,  was  a  demonstration  of  the  fact  that  the  farmers  of 
Maine  are  anxious  and  willing  to  learn  what  they  can  of  the  new  methods 
in  Agriculture. 

All  of  the  departments  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  were  represented. 
Three  baggage  cars  and  one  flat  car  were  used  to  carry  the  exhibits.  One- 
half  of  a  60-foot  baggage  car  was  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Poultry 
Department.  Three  main  lines  of  work  were  followed  out :  1st — a  general 
exhibit  of  material  of  interest  to  farmers  and  poultrymen,  for  instance, 
models  of  different  kinds  of  poultry  houses,  a  Maine  State  curtain 
front  laying  house,  a  curtain  front  colony  house,  a  Tolman  house,  etc., 
feed  hoppers,  nest  boxes,  egg  sorting  table,  incubators  and  brooders  in 
operation,  nest  boxes  for  setting  hens,  appliances  for  fattening,  killing,  pack- 
ing, and  shipping  poultry,  and  numerous  charts  giving  ideal  shapes  of  the 
different  breeds  of  poultry,  and  charts  of  the  different  methods  of  feeding, 
etc.  2nd — an  exhibit  of  the  instructional  work  in  poultry  carried  on  at  the 
University  of  Maine,  showing  by  means  of  a  series  of  enlarged  photographs 
the  methods  used  in  familiarizing  students  with  the  breeds,  feeds,  houses, 
etc.,  on  the  college  poultry  plant.  3d — an  exhibit  of  charts  and  data 
showing  the  need  of  further  organization  work  in  poultry  in  the  state  of 
Maine.  We  have  in  Maine,  as  in  many  other  states  in  the  Union  a  large 
and  influential  state  poultry  association  but  we  have  no  organization  at  the 
present  time  that  will  assist  the  poultrymen  to  grow  a  better  article,  to  grow 
that  article  more  cheaply  or  that  will  help  them  find  a  better  market  for 
that  article.  The  state  of  Maine  needs  not  only  a  Poultry  Producers' 
Association  that  would  assist  the  poultrymen  in  the  state  in  the  growing 
and  marketing  of  their  poultry,  but  one  that  would  also  have  for  its  purpose 
a  collection  of  data  on  poultry  matters  such  as  the  Cow  Test  Associations 
are  doing  for  the  dairymen. 

The  Experiment  Station  also  kindly  loaned  a  number  of  charts  setting 
forth  the  details  of  the  breeding  work  they  are  doing  with  poultry  and 
also  a  complete  set  of  the  bulletins  that  they  have  for  distribution. 
These  bulletins  were  framed  and  displayed  in  a  prominent  place  and  a  book 
and  pencil  placed  near  at  hand  where  persons  interested  could  leave  their 
names  and  addresses. 


106  TEACHING  BY  FARM  TRAINS 

Some  twenty  thousand  people  visited  the  train  in  its  trip  over  the  state. 
A  great  proportion  of  these  people  receive  the  Station  bulletins;  but  some  do 
not  and  to  show  how  great  an  interest  is  being  evinced  in  poultry  at  the  pres- 
ent time  it  might  be  well  to  note  that  over  a  thousand  people  put  their  names 
down  in  the  book  for  Station  bulletins.  Someone  was  always  in  charge 
of  the  Poultry  department  exhibit  on  the  train  and  there  was  a  constant 
circle  of  inquirers  around  him.  Questions  were  asked  particularly  on  the 
housing,  feeding,  hatching,  and  rearing.  Probably  because  the  train  was 
operated  in  the  late  spring,  most  of  the  questions  were  with  regard  to 
hatching  and  the  great  mortality  that  has  prevailed  among  the  newly 
hatched  chickens  in  many  sections. 

The  special  train  was  out  fifteen  days,  stopping  at  about  sixty  different 
places.  The  regular  stop  was  two  hours,  one  hour  of  which  was  given  to 
inspecting  the  train  and  the  other  to  three  or  four  short  practical  addresses 
on  different  agricultural  topics.  In  many  places  the  audience  was  given 
a  chance  to  select  a  topic  that  they  wished  discussed.  It  was  interesting  to 
note  the  number  of  times  poultry  was  asked  for. 

Four  years  previous  a  similar  train  had  been  conducted  through  the  state 
of  Maine.  It  attracted  a  large  number  of  visitors,  but  it  was  regarded 
much  as  a  curiosity  and  was  visited  by  numbers  of  persons  who  con- 
sidered only  the  unusual  spectacular  features  of  such  an  undertaking. 
Nevertheless,  much  good  was  accomplished  through  disseminating  valuable 
information  among  the  farming  communities.  This  year  the  situation  was 
entirely  changed.  The  "newness"  of  farming  trains  had  worn  away  and  the 
uninterested  did  not  care  to  look  on.  Yet  the  attendance  at  exhibits  and  lec- 
tures, both  day  and  evening,  was  larger  than  in  1906,  and  ninety  per  cent  of 
the  spectators  and  auditors  were  those  who  are  actively  engaged  in  farming. 
While  the  first  special  was  regarded  by  many  as  a  sort  of  free  circus,  that  of 
this  year  was  looked  on  wholly  as  a  school  of  agricultural  demonstration  and 
instruction. 

A  minor  problem  has  arisen  with  the  trip  of  the  Modern  Farming  Special 
in  Maine.  How  is  it  best  to  continue  this  course  of  instruction? 
While  an  occasional  "special'*  may  do  a  vast  amount  of  good,  it  is  apparent 
that  the  farmers  need  more  than  one  lesson  to  thoroughly  understand  the 
principal  features  of  any  one  branch  of  farming.  It  would  seem  that  some 
plan  must  be  adopted  to  continue  the  work  so  auspiciously  begun.  Such  a 
plan  must  possess  merits  which  will  result  in  its  having  a  permanent  place 
in  the  forwarding  of  general  agriculture.  The  cause  is  worthy  of  the  most 
careful  consideration.  There  is  here  an  opportunity  for  co-operation  at 
home  as  well  as  abroad;  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  railroads,  state 


BY    W.    A.    BROWN  107 

• 

Boards  of  Agriculture,  State  Departments  of  Agriculture,  and  the  various 
Agricultural  Associations.  It  is  hoped  that  a  feasible  solution  of  the 
problem  will  be  found. 

Another  form  of  College  extension  work  similar  to  the  farming  train  is 
the  educational  exhibit  at  the  Fairs.  The  Poultry  Department  at  the 
University  of  Maine  has  already  agreed  to  furnish  educational  exhibits  at 
several  of  the  large  Fall  Fairs  in  the  state,  at  the  state  poultry  show  at  Port- 
land in  December,  and  at  the  Boston  Poultry  Show  at  Boston  in  January. 
The  equipment  of  these  exhibits  will  be  similar  to  that  of  the  farming 
train,  except  that  the  incubators  and  brooders  will  be  omitted  and  such 
things  as  practical  demonstrations  in  the  killing,  dressing  and  packing  of 
poultry,  and  the  sorting  and  packing  of  eggs  will  be  substituted.  These 
exhibits  at  the  poultry  shows  are  especially  serviceable  in  bringing  the 
prominent  poultrymen  of  the  state  in  much  closer  touch  with  the  work  of 
the  College,  and  also  in  allowing  the  College  men  to  get  better  acquainted 
with  the  poultrymen. 

I  believe  that  the  poultry  exhibit  at  Fairs  can  be  made  to  have  a  powerful 
influence  for  good.  Our  poultry  shows  are  doing  a  lot  of  good  work  now; 
but  there  is  an  immense  field  to  be  covered.  More  attention  must  be  given 
to  the  utility  side.  The  fanciers  are  realizing  this,  and  in  many  places  the 
show  management  is  willing  and  glad  to  have  the  College  Poultry  Depart- 
ments come  forward  and  help  them  build  up  their  show  and  Association 
work  in  this  way. 


TEACHING  BY  LECTURES,  RECITATIONS 
AND  REFERENCE  READING 

BY   WM.  A.  LIPPINCOTT 

I  take  it  that  what  is  implied  in  my  subject  is  the  question  "What  is  the 
most  efficient  method  of  teaching  Poultry  Husbandry  in  the  class  room?'* 
The  question  of  laboratory  practice  is  not  included.  If  recitations  imply 
the  use  of  a  text  book,  the  ideal  method  is  one  which  is  a  combination  of  the 
three  methods  mentioned.  Each  has  its  particular  points  of  strength.  It 
is  only  when  we  take  advantage  of  all  of  them  that  we  have  done  our  best  to 
present  facts  and  principles  clearly  and  fix  them  in  the  mind  of  the  student. 

The  three  main  advantages  of  the  lecture  are:  (l)  the  personal  touch 
with  the  student  and  his  conditions;  (2)  the  impression  of  authority  which 
is  given  by  the  instructor;  and  (3)  the  opportunity  for  constant  revision. 

It  is  impossible  for  a  text  book  to  be  so  general  that  it  will  deal  with  all 
conditions  without  being  so  vague  that  it  will  practically  fail  to  deal  with 
any. 

With  a  lecture  an  instructor  may  apply  the  facts  and  principles  of  the 
text  to  the  particular  conditions  found  in  that  section  of  the  country. 

In  dealing  personally  with  any  individual,  there  is  a  distinct  advantage 
which  is  difficult  to  describe.  Instead  of  simply  writing  letters,  a  business 
house  sends  out  salesmen  to  get  orders  personally.  The  truth  which  is 
given  in  a  fresh  and  vigorous  way,  by  a  person,  makes  an  impression  on  a 
student  and  takes  on  a  significance  that  a  written  or  printed  statement  does 
not.  This  quickens  the  understanding  and  stimulates  the  memory.  It 
awakens  interest  and  associates  in  the  student's  mind  facts  which  would 
ordinarily  seem  to  have  no  connection.  Memory  depends  entirely  upon 
the  association  of  facts.  And  further,  the  lecture  gives  the  instructor  the 
opportunity  to  bring  out  the  connection  between  the  fundamental  sciences 
and  practical  work.  Our  work  is  broader  than  simply  making  poultrymen. 
We  are  employed  by  these  great  institutions,  first  of  all,  to  develop  men  and 
to  help  them  find  themselves.  We  have  done  a  greater  thing  when  we  have 
so  presented  our  poultry  work  that  we  have  taken  hold  of  the  imagination 
of  a  student  and  bridged  the  chasm  that  seems  to  yawn  between  chemistry, 
physics  and  the  like  on  the  one  hand  and  practical  agriculture  on  the  other 
and  sent  him  out  to  be  a  scientist,  (if  his  tastes  and  abilities  lie  in  that  direc- 
tion) than  we  have  if  we  have  converted  him  into  a  poultryman.  We  are 
here  primarily  to  help  men  get  located  where  their  abilities  lead  them.  If 
they  choose  poultry  we  are  then  to  make  good  poultrymen  of  them.  Such 
work  as  this  can  best  be  done  through  the  lecture  only. 


BY    WM.    A.    LIPPINCOTT  109 

While  the  second  advantage  of  the  lecture  must  not  be  pushed  too  far, 
it  is  a  fact  nevertheless,  that  that  man  who  can  stand  up  before  a  class  and 
tell  them  things  will  secure  greater  confidence  from  the  students  than  a  man 
who  is  really  better  posted  but  who  merely  asks  questions  over  a  text  book 
assignment.  The  lecturer  gives  the  impression  of  authority  and  inspires 
confidence. 

And  lastly,  the  opportunity  which  the  lecture  gives  of  bringing  the  sub- 
ject up  to  date  cannot  be  over  looked.  If  it  is  true,  as  has  been  said,  that 
any  agricultural  text  book  is  out  of  date  before  it  leaves  the  press  it  is 
especially  true  of  a  new  subject  like  poultry  husbandry.  New  truth  is 
being  brought  to  light  almost  daily.  New  editions  could  not  be  brought 
forward  fast  enough  to  keep  up  with  the  procession.  It  can  be  done  only 
through  additional  notes. 

We  need  text  books  because  it  is  impossible  to  give  by  word  of  mouth, 
all  the  necessary  facts  in  any  course.  There  is  not  sufficient  time.  The 
student  should  have  the  general  facts  and  ideas  in  mind  before  attending  the 
lecture.  The  instructor  may  then  spend  his  time  associating,  applying  and 
illustrating  them.  The  recitation  has  its  part  only  occasionally  as  a  con- 
venient means  of  finding  out  whether  the  student  is  keeping  up  his  work. 
Even  than  the  recitation  should  be  a  discussion  rather  than  a  quiz.  Every 
class  room  exercise  should  be  conducted  with  the  primary  motive  to  teach 
not  to  test.  The  instructor  who  cannot  find  out  incidentally,  without 
wasting  teaching  time  by  a  series  of  tests,  pure  and  simple,  whether  a 
student  is  working,  (provided  the  classes  are  of  reasonable  size)  is  out  of 
place  in  the  class  room. 

When  one  has  the  facts  and  principles  given  in  the  text,  revised, 
associated  and  applied  by  the  lecturer,  the  work  will  be  narrow  unless  it  is 
viewed  from  varying  angles.  In  our  work  this  is  best  done  through  excur- 
sions to  practical  poultry  farms,  working  on  different  farms,  and  what  is 
most  available  for  the  college  student,  reading.  Systematic  reference 
reading  which  is  all  that  its  name  implies  cannot  help  but  broaden  the 
point  of  view.  With  the  present  state  of  our  poultry  literature  it  is  difficult 
to  map  out  a  course  that  is  at  once  progressive  and  systematic.  Our  work, 
however,  will  be  weak  until  this  has  been  done. 


POULTRY  PATHOLOGY 

ITS  PLACE  IN  THE  CURRICULUMI 
BY  GEO.  BYRON  MORSE 

One's  answer  to  a  question  depends  upon  the  viewpoint.  At  a  Civil 
Service  examination,  to  the  question  "What  does  a  perfectly  equipped 
power  house  need?"  a  dubious  but  resourceful  candidate  answered, 
"Nothing."  His  viewpoint  was  different  from  that  of  the  examiner. 
"What  position  shall  the  study  of  disease  occupy  in  the  Poultry  Husbandry 
course?"  is  answered  by  the  writer  thus :  "A,  if  not  THE  MOST  PROMINENT 
PLACE." 

Poultry  Husbandry  should  include  three  groups  of  studies :  Zootechny, 
Economics  and  Hygiene.  Although  naming  it  third  in  the  list  I  do  not 
hesitate  to  affirm  that  in  the  most  subtle  manner  Poultry  Hygiene  assumes 
first  place  in  the  operations  of  a  poultry  man. 

Poultry  Zootechny  is  that  branch  of  poultry  husbandry  that  has  for  its 
object  the  study  of  alimentation  and  reproduction,  or,  to  use  an  expression 
that  means  less  and  yet  is  truer  to  the  actual  condition  of  things,  the  prac- 
tice of  feeding  and  breeding. 

Poultry  Economics  is  that  branch  of  poultry  husbandry  that  is  occupied 
with  the  commercial  aspect  of  poultry  farming,  particularly  the  marketing 
of  poultry  and  eggs. 

Poultry  Hygiene  is  that  branch  of  poultry  husbandry  that  concerns  itself 
with  the  maintenance  of  the  health  of  poultry. 

Which,  now,  of  these  three  branches  of  poultry  husbandry  is  most 
important?  Please  do  not  think  me  immodest  when  I  tell  you  that  I 
consider  the  last  named — Hygiene — by  far  the  most  important.  It  is 
natural  for  the  specialist  in  each  one  of  these  lines  to  feel  that  his  work  is 
THE  work.  For  him,  it  is. 

If  one  studies  the  catalogs  of  the  many  different  Agricultural  Colleges 
he  will  be  struck  with  the  marked  absence  of  poultry  hygiene  or  poultry 
pathology  from  the  curriculum.  But  its  absence  is  not  the  reason  that  I 
believe  it  is  the  most  important  or  the  most  to  be  sought  after. 

Hygiene  when  operating  in  its  widest  yet  legitimate  scope  is  practically 
coextensive  with  Biology.  This  involves  every  phase  and  condition  of  the 
living  organism ;  it  also  includes  all  those  subtle  relationships  of  the  physical 
sciences  with  what  we  call  the  science  of  life.  Biology  started  out  to  be  the 
science  of  the  living  organism  in  its  normal  condition;  it  was  soon  apparent, 

Reprint  from  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  Review. 


BY   GEO.    B.   MORSE  111 

however,  that  Pathology,  the  science  of  disease,  must  be  given  a  place  in  its 
classification.  Then  it  came  to  be  recognized  that  in  the  study  of  disease 
not  only  must  we  include  Therapeutics  or  the  science  and  art  of  treatment  of 
disease  but  a  most  prominent  place  had  to  be  allotted  to  Hygiene,  the  study 
of  the  laws  of  health  and  its  preservation.  Any  one  who  has  attempted 
to  specialize  in  Hygiene  has  found  himself  face  to  face  with  every  division 
of  Biology,  even  classification.  In  human  medicine  we  have  long  noted  the 
"diseases  of  civilization"  and  the  peculiar  immunity  of  uncivilized  peoples 
from  the  same.  Again,  there  has  been  recognition  of  the  awful  suscepti- 
bility of  the  Negro  and  Indian  races  to  diseases  to  which  the  Anglo-Saxon 
by  centuries  of  exposure,  has  acquired  a  certain  amount  of  immunity.  The 
same  is  true  in  poultry  husbandry.  Who  would  not  prefer  to  purchase  his 
stock  from  a  flock  of  "rangers"  rather  than  invest  in  the  third  or  fourth 
generation  of  "back-yard"  or  "town-lot"  poultry.  Most  observant  poul- 
trymen  can  tell  you  the  differences  that  exist  among  their  Asiatic,  Mediter- 
ranean and  American  breeds  as  to  susceptibility  to  disease  in  chickhood  and 
adult  life.  One  of  the  strong  points  claimed  for  certain  breeds  that  are  just 
now  being  largely  exploited  is  the  dominating  influence  of  their  disease- 
resisting  powers. 

I  referred  to  the  points  of  contact  between  the  physical  sciences  and 
Biology.  A  man  may  be,  as  the  result  of  close  observation,  an  apparently 
successful  feeder,  but  he  cannot  be  an  intelligent  feeder  today  unless  he 
possesses  some  knowledge  of  the  chemistry  of  digestion  and  the  chemistry 
of  foods.  Permit  me  to  quote  from  a  very  recent  and  most  interesting 
article :'  "The  animal  body  is  the  most  complicated  and  wonderful  piece  of 
machinery  in  the  world.  It  is  the  only  engine  which  generates  its  own 
power,  disposes  of  its  waste  products  and  automatically  renews  its  parts. 
Within  the  compass  of  the  human  frame  is  an  elaborate  hydraulic  system 
having  not  only  a  double  acting  force  pump  but  also  a  suction  pump  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  a  negative  pressure  in  the  veins  and  to  assist  the 
return  circulation.  The  nervous  system  may  be  likened  to  the  telephone 
system  of  a  great  city  for  it  has  all  the  local  call  stations  and  also  a  central 
station,  which  we  call  the  brain,  which  is  so  complicated  that,  elaborate  as 
are  the  switchboards  in  our  great  exchanges,  they  are  simplicity  itself 
compared  with  the  brain.  The  digestive  system  forms  the  furnace  in 
which  the  fuel  is  received  for  the  generation  of  power,  while  the  skin,  kid- 
neys and  lungs  make  up  a  complicated  apparatus  for  getting  rid  of  the 
waste  products  of  combustion." 

(Bristow,  Algernon  T.,  M.D.;  The  Unity  of  the  Medical  Sciences.  Journal  of  the 
American  Medical  Association,  vol.  Hi.  no.  II,  p.  844,  opening  paragraph,  March  13, 
1909,  Chicago. 


112  POULTRY   PATHOLOGY 

It  is  this  piece  of  machinery  that  the  poultry  husbandman  is  operating 
when  he  is  feeding  for  eggs  or  breeding  to  Standard.  It  is  this  machine 
from  which  the  commercial  poultryman  is  planning  to  turn  out  a  supply  of 
attractive  and  toothsome  table  fowl  to  catch  the  eye  and  tickle  the  palate 
of  the  epicure.  Hygiene  proposes  to  keep  this  machine  in  order,  oil  all 
its  parts,  keep  it  in  repair,  tell  you  how,  in  the  best  possible  manner,  to 
obtain  a  new  one,  lacking  all  the  defects  of  the  old  one,  possessing  features 
that  will  place  it  far  away  and  ahead  of  the  old.  It  is,  in  reality,  Hygiene 
that  will  tell  you  that  your  machine  is  sure  to  snap  and  go  to  pieces  if  you 
work  it  too  hard  and  can  explain  to  you  the  rationale  of  the  break- 
down. Poultry  Pathology,  as  a  branch  of  poultry  hygiene  will 
tell  you  why  your  250-egg  hen  dies  before  she  reaches  that  fascinat- 
ing number.  It  is  poultry  pathology  that  explains  to  you  that  the 
200-egg  hen  is  a  monstrosity,  an  abnormality,  and  as  such  is  far  more 
susceptible  to  disease  than  the  average  hen  of  much  lower  egg  laying 
ability.  Not  only  is  this  hen  peculiarly  subject  to  disease  but  all  the  hens 
that  have,  as  we  might  say,  formed  stepping  stones  up  to  this  much  sought- 
after  product  of  breeding  and  commercial  enterprise  are  likewise  markedly 
susceptible  to  disease  because  of  the  abnormal  regime  to  which  they  have 
been  exposed. 

An  enterprising  poultrywoman  brought  to  the  writer  a  dead  hen  for 
autopsy.  Examination  revealed  an  hypertrophied  ovary,  marked  conges- 
tion and  at  the  same  time  extreme  thinness  of  the  walls  of  the  egg  tube. 
Through  this  tube  an  egg  had  ruptured  into  the  abdominal  cavity.  There 
were  no  other  lesions.  To  my  inquiry  concerning  the  use  of  "forcing" 
foods,  she  replied,  "I  am  breeding  and  feeding  my  White  Leghorns  for  eggs; 
I  obtain  forty  cents  per  dozen  all  the  year  round;  I  could  sell  one  hundred 
dozen  as  easily  as  I  now  sell  fifty  dozen.  I  can  afford  to  lose  one  of  these 
hens  every  few  months  (that  had  been  the  record)  and  keep  on  forcing. 
Here  was  poultry  husbandry  with  Hygiene  in  the  background,  that  is  to 
say,  breeding,  feeding  and  marketing  in  defiance  of  Hygiene.  It  is  true, 
there  was  a  strong  appreciation  of  Hygiene  for  its  general  purpose;  that 
woman  desired  to  guard  against  an  attack  on  her  flock  by  an  infectious 
disease,  and  she  wisely  brought  the  dead  bird  to  a  pathologist  for  investiga- 
tion. But  when  it  came  to  a  question  of  the  pathology  of  egg  production 
she  allowed  the  commercial  element  to  overbalance  all  other  consider- 
ations. A  splendid  business  capacity  suggested  that  it  was  better 
to  lose  four  birds  a  year  from  diseased  ovaries  and  oviducts  due  to  excessive 
functioning  than  to  lose,  by  cutting  out  the  forcing  foods,  the  large  egg 
production  with  its  generous  receipts.  As  stated  above,  for  her,  poultry 


BY    GEO.    B.    MORSE  113 

economics  was  the  chief  thing.  And  the  writer,  as  a  pathologist,  agreed 
with  her.  But  Hygiene,  incarnate  in  the  Poultry  Pathologist  of  an  Agri- 
cultural College  must  furnish  to  poultrymen,  who  are  breeding,  feeding  and 
marketing,  such  data  as  is  contained  in  Bulletin  166  of  the  Maine  Agricult- 
ural Experiment  Station.  On  page  83  of  this  bulletin,  Doctors  Pearl  and 
Surface,  in  their  summary,  state,  "The  daughters  of  '200-egg'  hens  were  in 
this  experiment  very  much  inferior  to  their  mothers  in  average  egg  pro- 
duction." 

Even  though  Hygiene  may  not  yet  be  given  a  distinctly  separate  place 
in  the  curriculum  of  poultry  studies,  still  Pathology,  as  a  chief  division  of 
that  subject,  might  be  allowed  to  dominate  the  teaching.  Let  me  show 
you  what  I  mean.  Anatomy  and  Physiology  are  taught  in  the  schools  at 
present,  but,  I  think  I  can  safely  say,  largely  with  reference  to  alimentation 
and  reproduction,  especially  as  bearing  upon  the  commercial  side  of  poultry 
culture.  Let  it  be  taught  also  with  reference  to  disease.  Study  the 
anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  eye,  nose  and  throat  as  being  the  seat  respec- 
tively of  ocular,  nasal,  oral  and  pharyngeal  roup.  Study  the  windpipe  of 
chicks  as  being  the  seat  of  gape  disease  so  as  to  understand  why  one  gape 
worm  might  be  the  cause  of  death  and  also  to  appreciate  the  difficulties 
attendant  upon  some  of  the  proposed  instrumental  measures  recommended 
for  the  cure  of  the  disease.  Learn  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  air 
sacs  so  that  you  may  realize  better  the  dangers  connected  with  the  air 
sac  mite.  Learn  all  you  can  about  the  ceca,  their  structure  and  function, 
and  then  remember  that  they  are  the  usual  seat  of  intestinal  coccidiosis. 
Study  the  cloaca  in  order  that  you  may  be  familiar  with  the  locality  which 
you  should  sometimes  carefully  investigate  and  explore  with  a  well-vaselined 
finger  in  search  for  an  obstructing  egg  or  fecal  concretion. 

No  more  important  industry  exists  today  than  poultry.  Its  position 
among  the  industries  is  growing  in  recognition.  The  colleges  must  come  to 
honor  it  as  it  deserves.  The  writer  believes  that  a  whole  four  year  course  of 
studies  in  an  Agricultural  College  could  be  built  up  around  Poultry.  It 
would  be  a  masterly  move  on  the  part  of  the  instructors  in  poultry  hus- 
bandry to  map  out  such  a  course  and  thus  prove  to  young  men  and  women 
that  in  fitting  themselves  to  run  intelligently  a  poultry  farm  they  would  be 
securing  a  broad  training  involving  not  only  a  fundamental  general  science 
course  but  also  a  technical  agricultural  education  that  would  include  every 
phase  of  farm  life,  thus  enabling  the  graduate  poultryman  to  meet  every 
requirement  for  the  well-being  (health)  of  his  flock. 


"STUDY  OF  FEEDS"  AND  "METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN 
FEEDING".    A  DEMONSTRATION 

BY   W.  G.  KRUM 

In  the  study  of  poultry  feeds,  students  are  supplied  with  half-pint 
bottles  of  as  many  kinds  of  grain,  ground  feeds,  by-products,  meat  foods, 
grit,  etc.,  as  can  be  obtained.  At  present  we  have  about  60  of  the  samples, 
each  one  labeled  and  as  far  as  possible,  having  its  analysis  given. 

Students  are  allowed  to  study  and  familiarize  themselves  with  these  for 
one  hour  then  they  are  removed  and  60  small  samples  of  the  same  are 
placed  before  them  in  numbered  boxes.  The  student  is  expected  to  name 
each  sample  recording  the  name  on  a  numbered  sheet. 

They  are  given  also  a  study  of  mixtures,  by  having  several  rations,  some 
good  and  some  poor  ones,  given  them.  The  students  mix  these,  then  note 
their  bulk,  coarseness  and  fiber  content.  Ground  feeds  are  mixed  with 
water  to  show  crumbliness  or  stickiness  and  palatibility. 

Directly  after  a  course  of  lectures  on  feeds  and  feeding  each  student 
is  given  a  pen  of  about  40  fowls  to  manage  for  four  to  six  weeks.  He  takes 
an  inventory  of  stock  and  feed  on  hand,  weighs  back  at  the  end  of  each 
week  the  amount  of  feed  left,  works  out  a  balance  sheet  showing  cost  and 
amount  of  each  kind  of  food  consumed,  cost  of  labor,  amount  and  value  of 
eggs  and  manure  produced,  showing  loss  or  profit,  and  studies  to  feed 
according  to  appetite  for  best  results. 

The  instructor  or  assistant  should  spend  as  much  time  as  possible  with 
the  student  at  feeding  time,  as  nothing  fixes  the  value  of  practical  work 
in  the  mind  of  the  student  like  personal  supervision. 

Following  is  a  list  of  instructions  given  to  students  in  Poultry  Hus- 
bandry at  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture. 

INSTRUCTIONS   FOR   FEEDING  PRACTICE 


DEPARTMENT  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY, 
N.  Y.  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE  AT  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


To  be  copied  into  a  personal  note  book  by  each  student  and  handed  to  the  instructor 
before  commencing  the  Feeding  Practice. 

A   HINT 

industrious 

careful 

orderly 


A  good  poultryman  should  be 


neat 
quiet 
quick 
prompt 


BY   W.    G.    KRUM  115 

Always  knock,  whistle  or  speak  before  opening  a  door.  It  pays  to  be  polite  in  a  hen 
house.  Fright  retards  egg  production. 

GENERAL    RULES 

In  order  to  insure  against  mistake  or  misunderstanding,  one  person,  the  Instructor,  is 
responsible  for  the  proper  performance  of  the  various  kinds  of  work  and  the  accuracy  of 
the  records;  therefore,  he  should  always  be  present  when  weighings  are  made.  If  the 
Instructor  is  not  available,  an  assistant  will  attend  to  it. 

Always  carry  the  "official  note  book"  while  doing  the  poultry  practice  work  and  use  it. 

Leave  weekly  record  sheets  and  note  book  in  the  Dressing  room  on  your  locker  door. 

Copy  from  the  original  slips  without  removing  leaves  from  the  book. 

Make  all  notes  at  the  time  the  observation  is  made.  Do  not  trust  to  your  memory. 
Post  up  records  each  night.  Keep  close  watch  of  grit,  shell  and  feed  hoppers, — see  that 
they  are  supplied  and  feeding  properly. 

Credit  will  be  turned  in  as  incomplete  unless  pens  are  left  in  perfect  order  and  all 
records  completed. 

RULES   FOR  FEEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 
MORNING 

1.  Feed  whole  grain  and  only  as  much  as  the  hens  will  eat  eagerly,  (unless  otherwise 
directed  for  special  pens  in  experiments.)     Feed  much  or  little  according  to  their  appe- 
tites.    If  too  much  grain  is  fed  in  the  morning,  not  enough  of  the  ground  feed  will  be 
eaten;  if  too  little  grain  is  fed  in  the  morning,  too  much  ground  feed  will  be  eaten.     To 
know  how  much  to  give  is  the  fine  art  of  feeding.     It  can  only  be  learned  by  much  prac- 
tice and  careful  observation. 

2.  Scatter  the  grain  over  the  entire  floor  space. 

3.  Keep  the  straw  loose  and  well  toward  the  front  of  the  house,  rake  straw  to  the 
front  once  daily. 

4.  If  hens  are  not  hungry  enough  to  work  for  their  living,  they  are  being  fed  too 
much. 

5.  If  the  litter  is  not  piled  up  in  heaps  and  full  of  holes  down  to  the  floor,  the  hens 
are  not  working  enough. 

NOON 

1.  Open  feed  hopper. 

2.  Feed  cut  bone  and  vegetables. 

3.  When  the  supply  cans  are  empty,  they  should  be  weighed,  refilled  with  the  ground 
meal  mixture  prescribed,  weighed  again,  and  the  amount  of  feed  charged  on  the  daily 
food  record. 

4.  Clean  and  return  promptly  to  their  proper  places,  the  pails  used  for  watering  and 
feeding. 

NIGHT 

1 .  Feed  all  the  whole  grain  scattered  in  the  litter  that  the  hens  will  eat  (unless  other- 
wise directed  for  special  pens  in  experiment).     They  should  go  to  roost  with  full  crops. 
It  is  better  to  have  a  little  grain  uneaten  at  night  than  to  have  hens  go  to  roost  unsatisfied. 

2.  When  the  supply  cans  contain  insufficient  grain  for  the  next  feeding,  they  should 
be  carried  to  the  feed  room,  weighed,  filled  and  weighed  again,  and  the  weights  recorded 
on  the  "daily  food  record  sheet." 

3.  Feed  stock  in  hanging  coops  three  times  daily. 


116  STUDY    OF   FEEDS 

WATERING 

1.  Rinse  and  empty  all  water  cans  before  filling.     [Throw  waste  water  in  pail 
provided].     Fill  all  pans  full  in  the  morning. 

2.  At  night  add  enough  water  to  last  until  morning.     (Except  in  freezing  weather). 

3.  Fill  water  cups  in  the  hanging  coops  both  night  and  morning  (when  coops  are  occu- 
pied). 

4.  Never  let  a  water  dish  get  dry.     (Except  during  coldest  nights). 

5.  Return  water  pail  to  proper  place. 

CLEANING 

1.  Clean  the  platform  each  morning.     Use  a  square  bladed  shovel. 

2.  Place  the  droppings  in  the  cleaning  pail,  then  scatter  on  the  platform  plaster  and 
coal  ashes  from  the  dust  box.     This  will  make  the  platform  clean  more  easily  and  will 
absorb  the  odor. 

3.  Weigh  the  total  amount  of  cleanings  each  day  and  deposit  in  the  manure  shed. 

4.  Do  not  forget  to  replace  the  perches  after  the  platforms  are  cleaned. 

5.  Keep  the  walls  swept  free  of  dust  and  the  windows  clean. 

6.  Shovels  should  be  clean  and  in  their  proper  places. 

TRAP  NESTING 

1.  Examine  and  work  all  traps  each  morning. 

2.  Release  the  hen  from  trap  by  letting  her  walk  into  your  hands. 

3.  Handle  the  hen  gently  and  stand  her  on  the  floor  carefully  when  letting  her  go. 

4.  See  that  all  leg  bands  are  properly  fastened. 

5.  Look  twice  to  make  sure  that  you  have  read  the  number  correctly.     The  leg  band 
should  be  right  side  up  to  read  when  the  hen  is  held  in  the  arm,  feet  downward  and 
back  upward. 

6.  Mark  the  egg  exactly  on  the  big  end  and  in  small  distinct  figures,  first  giving  the 
number  of  the  hen  then  drawing  a  line  underneath,  and  below  it  write  the  number  of  the 

H65 
pen;  thus:  ^— 

7.  Collect  all  eggs  in  the  box  which  is  provided,  and  marked  with  the  number  of  the 
pen. 

8.  If  an  egg  is  found  on  the  floor,  mark  it  "F;"  if,  in  the  nest  and  no  hen  is  there, 
mark  it  "N ;"  if  two  eggs  are  in  the  nest  and  only  one  hen  mark  one  egg  with  the  number 
of  the  hen,  placing  a  circle  around  it,  and  mark  the  other  egg  "N." 

9.  After  gathering  the  eggs,  see  that  all  traps  are  in  proper  working  order.     If  you 
are  unable  to  do  this,  make  a  report  of  your  trouble  to  the  assistant  in  charge,  giving 
the  number  of  the  nests  and  number  of  the  pen. 

10.     When  broody  hens  are  found,  their  number  should  be  recorded  and  they  should 
be  placed  in  the  hanging  coop,  and  their  number  entered  on  the  "broody  hen"  record. 

11.  At  night,  when  the  last  eggs  have  been  collected,  wipe  them  spotlessly  clean, 
and  leave  in  collecting  box  in  the  alloted  place  on  the  shelf  in  the  egg  room.     Do  not 
soak  eggs  unless  they  are  badly  soiled.     The  less  water  the  better.     A  little  sal  soda  or 
Bon  Ami  can  be  used.     The  eggs  should  be  dry.     Keep  your  hands  clean. 

12.  Close  all  traps  after  the  last  collection  in  the  evening,  if  necessary,  to  prevent 
hens  from  roosting  in  nests.     Open  in  the  morning. 


BY   W.    G.    KRUM  117 

13.  Enter  the  number  of  each  egg  on  the  daily  egg  record  sheet  and  compute  the 
value  of  the  total  number  of  eggs  laid  that  day,  at  the  price  quoted. 

14.  Before  leaving  the  pen  look  back  and  think  if  anything  has  been  forgotten. 

FINALLY 

1.  Post  your  records  promptly,  accurately  and  neatly  at  the  end  of  each  period. 

2.  Remember,  you  are  each  day  making  a  record  for  yourself.    The    "world  is 
taking  your  photograph." 


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INSTRUCTION  IN  FEEDING  POULTRY 

BY   C.    A.    ROGERS 

I  can  best  present  my  present  conception  of  giving  instruction  in 
"Feeding  Poultry"  by  describing  my  impressions  as  a  student  in  Poultry 
and  telling  how  later  experiences  have  altered  the  original  impression. 

A  good  part  of  the  time  was  devoted  to  the  study  of  balancing  rations. 
Individual  grains  and  food  products  were  studied  principally  from  their 
analytical  value.  Their  physical  properties  also  were  considered.  Later, 
when  the  body  needs  of  the  fowl  were  sufficiently  understood,  these 
different  grains  and  food  products  were  studied  collectively  with  the  object 
of  balancing  them;  so  that,  for  example,  if  the  ration  is  for  the  laying  hen, 
it  should  provide  her  with  food  of  such  quantity  and  quality  that  her  diges- 
tive system  can  dispose  of  it  with  least  effort,  giving  to  her  body  sufficient 
nourishment  to  keep  it  in  healthy  physical  condition  and  at  the  same  time 
giving  a  surplus  of  food  in  a  form  which  the  fowl  will  dispose  of  in  eggs 
rather  than  in  surplus  body  fat. 

The  impression  of  the  importance  of  balancing  rations  is  enhanced  by  the 
fact  that  one  gets  this  work  at  some  length  in  at  least  two  courses,  Animal 
Husbandry  and  Poultry  Husbandry.  In  each  course  much  time  is  given 
to  this  study  and  it  naturally  takes  correspondingly  proportionate  import- 
ance in  one's  mind. 

The  physical  properties  of  the  food  are  also  involved  in  balancing  the 
ration.  Experience  has  shown  how  easy  it  is  to  formulate  a  ration  having 
the  desired  nutritive  ratio  only  to  discover  that  its  bulk  would  make  it 
impossible  for  the  fowl  to  pass  enough  through  her  system  to  supply  even 
her  body  needs.  It  is  equally  inefficient  and  even  dangerous  to  have  the 
ration  too  rich  or  too  sticky.  The  amount  and  regularity  of  succulent  food 
also  must  be  carefully  proportioned. 

Some  study  was  given  to  the  manner  of  feeding  these  foods,  the  time  of 
feeding,  amount  to  be  given,  etc.  However,  the  full  importance  of  how  to 
feed,  was  never  made  so  prominent  as  what  to  feed.  Experience  and  the 
observation  of  the  results  of  others,  have  done  vastly  more  to  impress  me 
with  the  need  of  knowing  how  to  feed  properly  balanced  rations. 

It  is  common  to  find  two  poultrymen  using  the  same  ration  under 
very  similar  conditions,  one  obtaining  successful  results,  the  other  experi- 
encing failure.  We  assign  this  difference  in  results  to  the  personality  of 
the  feeder.  This  is  usually  the  true  reason.  This  difference  in  personality, 
however,  shows  itself  in  the  way  in  which  the  ration  is  fed.  It  would 


120  INSTRUCTION    IN   FEEDING    POULTRY 

seem  then,  since  such  comparisons  exist  so  commonly,  that  the  factors  of 
this  personality  should  be  given  greater  emphasis  and  the  student  taught  to 
appreciate  the  principles  of  feeding  in  as  important  a  light  as  the  balancing 
of  the  ration. 

The  instruction  on  feeding  then,  based  on  these  facts,  would  be  divided 
in  the  following  manner: 

1.  Requirements  of  the  fowl. 

2.  Balancing  the  ration. 

(a)  To  obtain  the  correct  proportion  of  digestible  nutrients. 

(b)  To  have  the  necessary  physical  properties  of  bulk,  succulence, 
etc.  and  (c)     To  be  palatable. 

3.  Principles  of  feeding  the  ration. 

(a)  To  encourage  proper  exercise. 

(b)  To  provide  the  fowl  with  sufficient  nourishment  each  day. 
My  plea  for  greater  emphasis  on  the  "way  to  feed*'  is  strengthened 

by  the  bulk  of  our  disease  correspondence.  A  large  proportion  of  this 
correspondence  comes  from  people  who  are  feeding  properly  balanced 
rations,  but  still  find  that  their  fowls  lay  soft  shelled  eggs,  or  become  weak 
legged,  or  die  off  gradually  with  no  apparent  disease,  and  furthermore, 
that  the  chicks  hatched  from  their  eggs  do  the  same.  Further  inquiry 
usually  brings  forth  the  fact  that  the  fowls  are  either  confined  in  small  pens 
or  over-fed  in  such  a  way  that  they  do  not  get  proper  exercise,  thus  mak- 
ing it  difficult  for  their  bodies  to  work  off  the  surplus  food.  This 
possibility  of  over-feeding  is  not  so  often  thought  of,  especially  since  it  is 
taught  that  it  is  necessary  to  supply  more  than  the  body  needs  before  eggs 
can  be  obtained. 

The  principle  of  making  our  fowls  exercise  for  their  food  does  not 
necessarily  interfere  with  our  present  methods  of  feeding.  We  can  use 
our  hoppers  for  the  dry  mash  provided  we  keep  them  closed  during  the 
early  part  of  the  day  or  fill  them  with  a  bulky  mash. 

To  make  a  fowl  exercise  properly,  especially  in  winter,  it  is  necessary  only 
to  keep  her  appetite  whetted  and  partially  hide  her  food.  This  is  most 
easily  done  by  feeding  whole  grains  scattered  in  small  quantity  in  a  deep 
litter.  If  she  is  forced  to  work  diligently  in  the  morning  her  exercise 
will  have  been  sufficient  for  the  day.  She  may  then  be  allowed  to  consume 
all  that  she  desires  in  the  afternoon,  and  it  should  be  made  possible  for  her 
to  fill  her  crop  before  night  fall.  The  digestion  of  this  food  keeps  her 
warm  and  quiet  during  the  night. 

I  believe  also  that  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  "principles  involved 
in  feeding"  rather  than  on  the  "study  of  individual  rations/'  The  prin- 


BY    C.  A.  ROGERS  121 

ciples  are  applicable  everywhere  and  under  all  conditions,  whereas,  an 
individual  ration  proves  of  different  value  under  various  conditions.  If 
taught  "the  principles"  a  student  can  interpret  the  results  in  a  tangible 
way  and  more  easily  solve  his  own  problem,  whereas,  one  will  often  err  and 
work  in  the  dark  when  trouble  arrives,  if  one  has  learned  individual  rations 
and  methods,  instead  of  principles. 

I  do  not  wish  to  imply  by  these  remarks  that  I  would  in  any  way  lessen 
the  value  now  placed  upon  the  study  of  balancing  rations  in  relation  to  the 
needs  of  the  fowl,  but  that  I  would  increase  the  attention  given  to  the 
"method  of  feeding." 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(A  combined  report  of  the  committees  on  Bibliography) 

This  partial  list  of  books,  bulletins  and  articles  on  poultry  subjects  is 
compiled  from  many  sources;  books,  bulletins,  published  list  of  books, 
indices  of  poultry  literature,  scientific  publications,  foreign  publications,  etc. 

The  material  is  classified  under  general  topics  and  arranged  under  each 
topic  according  to  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  Author's  name,  or  of  the 
station  from  which  the  publication  is  issued. 

The  arrangement  of  the  items  is  as  follows:  Name  of  author  or 
station;  title  of  book,  bulletin,  or  article;  date  (if  known) ;  publisher  and 
place  of  issuance,  or  publication  in  which  the  article  appeared. 

The  list  should  be  regarded  only  as  a  preliminary  attempt  to  classify 
published  information,  on  poultry  subjects  and  as  a  foundation  on  which 
to  build  a  complete  bibliography  of  poultry  literature. 

Credit  is  due  to  Victor  Fortier  for  translations  from  the  French;  to 
F.  M.  Surface  and  G.  M.  Turpin  for  references  to  articles  in  scientific 
publications,  to  R.  R.  Slocum  for  the  list  of  publications  from  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.  C.  and  the  method  of 
obtaining  them,  and  to  Clara  Nixon  for  the  list  of  books  and  bulletins  in 
English  and  for  the  arrangement  of  the  material. 

Appliances 

Daves,  J.  H.,  Art  of  Poultry  Breeding  (1896).     Chatham,  N.  Y. 

Dryden,  Jas.  and  Lunn,  A.  G.,  A  Colony  House:  A  Trapnest.  Oregon  Exp. 
Sta.,  Cir.  No.  4. 

Ferguson,  George,  Breeding  Poultry  (1853).     London. 

Fiske,  Geo.  B.,  Poultry  Appliances  and  Handicraft.     Orange  Judd  Co. 

Gowell,  G.  M.,  Maine  Trapnest. 

Gowell,  G.  M.,  Hens  for  One  Pen;    Trapnests.     Maine  Report,  1898.* 

Rice,  J.  E.,  Rogers,  C.  A.,  Labor  Saving  Poultry  Appliances.  N.  Y.  (Cornell)  Agr. 
Station  Bui.  No.  284. 

Rice,  Jas.  E.  and  Lawry,  R.  C.,  New  Poultry  Appliances.  Cornell  Bui.  No.  248  (1907). 

Reliable  Poultry  Journal  Pub.  Co.,  Poultry  Houses  and  Fixtures.     Quincy,  111. 

Reprint  from  "Work."  Incubators  and  Chicken  Rearing  Appliances;  How  to 
Make  and  Use  Them.  (1899.)  London. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  Hoppers  for  Poultry  Feeding.  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  316  (Exp. 
Sta.  Work). 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Catching  Hook  for  Poultry;  Water  Pan  for  Poultry, 
Farmers'  Bui.  No.  317  (Exp.  Sta.  Work). 

Webb  Pub.  Co.,  Poultry  Houses,  Coops  and  Equipment.     St.  Paul,  Minn. 

*The  addresses  of  the  colleges  and  experiment  stations  are  given  at  the  end  of  this  report. 


BREEDING  123 

Breeding 

Australia,  Second  Egg  Laying  Contest.     Agr.   Gazette,   May,   1904. 

Barfurth,  Experimentelle  Untersuchen  uber  die  Vererbung  der  Hyperdactylie  bei 
Huhner  I.  Die  Einfluss  der  Mutter.  Arch  f.  Ent'mech.  Bd.  XXVI.  Hf.  4.  Taf 
XuXI.  (1909.) 

Bateson,  W.,  Poultry- Heredity.  Rep.  to  Evolution  Com.  Roy.  Sec.  (London), 
(1908).  No.  4. 

Comyns,  Alexander,  Breeding  and  Feeding  Fancy  Poultry.     English. 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  Characters  of  Mongrels  vs.  Pure  Breds.  Rep.  Amer.  Breeders' 
Assoc.,  Vol.  4  (1911). 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  Heredity  and  Mendel's  Law.  Vol.  9  (1907),  pp.  179-187,  Wash- 
ington Academy  of  Science. 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  Inheritance  in  Poultry  (1906).  Carnegie  Institution,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  Inheritance  in  Canaries,  Pub.  No.  95  (1909),  Carnegie  Inst., 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  The  New  Views  about  Reversion.  Proceedings  of  the  Amer. 
Philos.  Soc.  Vol.  49  (1910),  No.  196. 

Dryden,  Jas.,  Egg  Type;   Breeding  for  Egg  Production,  etc.      Utah  Bui.  No.  92. 

Dry  den,  Jas.,  Housing,  Fertility  of  Eggs;  Carbon-dioxide  in  Incubators.  Utah 
Bui.  No.  102. 

Felch,  I.  K.,  Fanciers'  Mating  of  Fowls,  Turkeys,  Ducks  and  Geese. 

Galloway,  A.  R.,  Canary  Breeding. 

Goodale,  H.  D.,  Breeding  Expt.  in  Poultry.  Rep.  Soc.  Exper.  Biol.  and  Med.  7 
(1910)  pp.  178-179. 

Goodale,  H.  D.,  Studies  in  Hybrid  Ducks.     Jour.  Exper.  Zool.  io-(i9io)  No.  3. 

Gowell,  G.  M.,  Growth  of  Chickens:  Breeding  for  Egg  Production:  Effect  of 
Green  Food  in  Fattening.  Maine  Bui.  No.  64. 

Gowell,  G.  M.,  Fattening:  Breeding  for  Egg  Production:  Incubation.  Maine 
Bui.  No.  79. 

Gowell,  G.  M.,  Breeding  for  Egg  Production:     Egg  Type.     Maine  Bui.  No.  93. 

Gowell,  G.  M.,  Houses:  Breeding  for  Egg  Production:  Feeding.  Maine  Bui. 
No.  130. 

Guyer,  M.  F.,  Atavism  in  Guinea-chicken  Hybrids.  Jour.  Exper.  Zool.  7  (1909) 
No.  4.  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Guyer,  Michael  F.,  The  Spermatogenesis  of  the  Domestic  Chicken  (Gallus  Gallus 
Dom.).  Anat.  Anz.  Bd.  34,  p.  573-580  (1909). 

Hadley,  P.  B.,  Sex  Limited  Inheritance.     Science  N.  S.  Vol.  32  (1910)  No.  831. 

Laurie,  D.  F.,  Scientific  Breeding  and  Heredity.     (1908.)     Australia. 

New  York  (Geneva),  Males  with  Laying  Stock;  Foods  and  Feeding;  Feather  Eating. 
Bui.  No.  57  (1893). 

Pearl,  Raymond  and  Surface,  F.  M.,  Inheritance  of  Fecundity.     Maine  Bui.  No.  166. 

Pearl,  Raymond  and  Surface,  F.  M.,  Inheritance  of  the  Hatching  Quality  in  the 
Eggs  of  the  Domestic  Fowls.  Maine  Agric.  Exp.  Station. 

Pearl,  Raymond  and  Surface,  F.  M.,  Selection  Index  Numbers  and  Their  Use  in 
Breeding.  Amer.  Nat.  43  (1909)  No.  511. 

Pearl,  Raymond,  Inheritance  of  the  Barred  Pattern  in  Poultry.  Maine  Agri. 
Exp.  Station. 


124  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Pearl,  Raymond,  Studies  on  Hybrid  Poultry.      Maine  Biology  Lab.  papers  No.  21. 

Rhode  Island,  Breeding:     Crossing:     Capons.     Rep.   1892. 

Rhode  Island,  Turkey  Raising;    Goose  Raising;    Cross  Breeding.     Rep.  1897. 

Rice,  Jas.  E.  and  Rogers,  C.  A.,  Constitutional  Vigor  in  Poultry  Breeding.  Cornell 
Reading  Course  Bui.  No.  45  and  Rep.  1909. 

Surface,  F.  M.  and  Pearl,  Raymond,  Appliances  and  Methods  of  Pedigree  Breeding. 
Maine  Bui.  No.  159. 

Tegetmeier,  Wm.  H.  and  Boulton,  W.  W.,  Breeding  for  Color,  and  the  Physiology 
of  Breeding  (1873).  Ward,  Beverly  &  Co.,  London,  Eng. 

Thompson,  D.  S.,  5th  Egg  Laying  Contest.     Miscellaneous  Pub.  (1903),  Australia. 

Wheeler,  W.  P.,  Capons  vs.  Cockerels;  Influence  of  Male  on  Egg  Production.  N.  Y. 
(Geneva)  Report  1892. 

Breeds  and  Types  of  Poultry  (Incl.  Merit  of  Breeds) 

American  Poultry  Assoc.,  Amer.  Standard  of  Excellence  (1883),  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

American  Poultry  Assoc.,  Amer.  Standard  of  Perfection  (1888),  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Atkinson,  Herbert,  Old  English  Game  Fowl. 

Ayres,  H.  F.,  Game  Fowl  (1878).     Hartford,  Conn. 

Ayres,  F.  H.,  Quest  of  the  Leghorn  (1880).     Hartford,  Conn. 

Babcock,  Harmon  S.  and  Felch,  I.  K.,  Indian  Game.     Providence,  R.  I. 

Baum,  Frank  L.,  Book  of  Hamburgs  (1886).     Hartford,  Conn. 

Biggs,  Fred,  Minorca  Fowls:  Their  Breeding  and  Management  for  Eggs  and  for 
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Bowers,  J.  C.,  Black  Spanish  Fowls. 

Burnham,  G.  P.,  The  China  Fowl:  Shanghae,  Cochin  and  Brahma  (1874).  Mel- 
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Brown,  Edward,  Races  of  Domestic  Poultry.     Edwin  Arnold,  London  and  N.  Y. 

Brown,  Edward,  Poultry  Classification,  Varieties,  etc.     English. 

Brown,  Edward,  Poultry:    With  Illustrations  (1889).     English. 

Caddell,  T.,  Malay  Fowl  and  Malay  Bantam  with  Notes  on  the  Fancy  in  Australia. 

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Clough,  W.  W.,  Plymouth  Rocks,  How  to  Mate  and  Breed  Them.     (1895.) 

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Clough,  W.  W.,  Wyandottes:  How  to  Mate.  Breed.  Exhibit  and  Care  for  Them. 
(1896). 

Cook,  Wm.,  Fowls  for  the  Times:  The  History  and  Development  of  the  Orpington 
Fowl  (1896).  London,  Eng. 

Corbin,  F.  H.,  Plymouth  Rocks  (1879).     Hartford,  Conn. 

Croad,  Miss  A.  C.,  Langshan  Fowl  (1889).     London,  Eng. 

Dizon,  Edmund  S.,  Ornamental  and  Domestic  Poultry  (1848).  Gardeners'  Chroni- 
cle, London. 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  Poultry  Book.     N.  Y.  City. 

Doyle,  Martin,  Illustrated  Book  of  Domestic  Poultry. 

Dryden,  Jas.,  Breeds  of  Chickens.     Oregon  R.  C.  Lesson  No.  i. 


BREEDS  AND  TYPES  OF  POULTRY  125 

Dryden,  Jas.,  The  Productive  Qualities  of  Fowls.     Cir.  No.  n,  Oregon. 

Emery,  F.  E.,  Test  of  Breeds;    Feeding  (1899).     N.  C.  Bui.  No.  167. 

Entwisle,  W.  F.,  Bantams.     English. 

"Feathered  World,"  Blue  Andalusian:  Its  Breeding;  Management  and  Exhibition. 
"Silver  Dun,"  London,  Eng. 

Ferguson,  Geo.,  Illustrated  Series  of  Rare  and  Prize  Poultry.     London,  Eng. 

Field,  J.  Penfold,  Wyandotte  Fowl.     "Fanciers'  Gazette,"  London. 

Hamilton,  Variations  of  Langshan  (1879).     London,  Eng. 

Hansard,  T.  C.,  Treatise  on  the  Game  Cock.     London. 

Harrison,  T.  H.,  The  Minorca  Fowl.     (1893). 

Hesford,  Harry,  Leghorns  of  all  Varieties  (1896).     "Feathered  World,"  London. 

Harker,  Chas.  K.,  Brown  Leghorn  Fowl  (1879).     Rochester,  N.  H. 

Hawes,  Theo.,  Book  of  Hamburgs.  Inland  Poultry  Jour.  Pub.  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

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Howard,  Geo.  E.,  American  Fanciers'  Poultry  Book.  Howard  Pub.  Co.,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Howard,  G.  E.,  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens.     U.  S.  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  51. 

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Johnson,  W.  G.,  Brown,  G.  O.,  and  Others.     The  Poultry  Book  (1904-5).     N.  Y. 

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Inland  Poultry  Jour.  Pub.  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

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Pearl,  Raymond  and  Surface,  F.  M.,  Resection  and  End-to-end  Anastomosis  of 
the  Oviduct  of  the  Hen,  Without  Loss  of  Function.  Biol.  Papers  of  the  Maine  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  No.  5. 

Pearl,  Raymond,  A  Triple  Yolked  Egg.     Maine  Biology  Lab.     Paper  No.  15. 

Reihl,  H.  A.,  Ueber  den  Bau  des  Augenlides  beim  Vogel.     G.  Thieme  p.  82  (1908). 

Rice,  J.  E.,  Nixon,  Clara  and  Rogers,  C.  A.,  The  molting  of  Hens.  (1908)  Cornell 
Bui.  No.  258. 

Riddle,  Oscar,  Cause  of  Production  of  Down  and  other  Down-like  Structures  in  the 
Plumages  of  Birds.  Biol.  Bui.  14  (1908)  No.  3. 

Riddle,  Oscar,  Genesis  of  Fault-bars  in  Feathers  and  Cause  of  Light  and  Dark  Fun- 
damental Bars.  Biol.  Bui.  14  (1908)  No.  5. 

Riddle,  Oscar,  Rate  of  Growth  of  the  Egg  Yolks  in  the  Chick  and  Significance  of. 
the  White  and  Yellow  Yolk  in  the  Ova  of  Vertebrates.  Science  (N.  Ser.)  27  (1908) 
No.  703  P.  945. 

Shattuck,  S.  G.  and  Seligman,  C.,  An  example  of  Incomplete  Hermaphroditism  in 
the  Domestic  Fowl.  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Med.  London.  (1908).  Vol.  I  path,  sec.:  pp.  3-7. 

Simpson,  Sutherland,  Observations  on  the  Body  Temperature  of  the  Domestic 
Fowl  During  Incubation.  Trans.  Royal.  Soc.,  Edinburgh  (1911). 

de  Sower,  Eugene,  Les  premiere  stades  de  la  vitellogenese  dans  1'ovule  de  la  poule. 
Ann.  Soc.  Med.  de  Gand.  T.  85  pp.  55-62.  (1905).  Rev.  Zool.  Anz.  Bd.  34,  p.  352. 

Strong,  R.  M.,  Development  of  Color  in  the  Definitive  Feather.  Bui.  Museum  of 
Comp.  Zool.  Harvard  College  Vol.  40  (1902)  No.  3. 

Szielasko,  A.,  Die  Bildungsgesetze  der  Vogeleier  bezuglich  ihrer  Gestalt.  Gera- 
Untermhaus  80.  p.  23  (1902)  Rev.  Biblio.  Zool.  Vol.  8,  p.  45. 

Vaughan,  Victor  C.,  Osteology  and  Myology  of  the  Domestic  Fowl  (1876). 

Walker,  C.  E.,  Influence  of  the  Testes  on  the  Secondary  Sexual  Characters  of  Fowls. 
Proc.  Royal  Ser.  Med.  (London)  i  (1906)  No.  6. 

Willey,  A.,  Dwarf  Eggs  of  the  Domestic  Fowl.  Spolia  Zeylanica  Vol.  i.pp.  76,  77 
(1903)  Rev.  Zool.  Anz.  34,  p.  353. 

Quelques  faits  concernant  le  developement  1'intestin  moyen  et  de 

ses  glandes  annexes  chez  les  oiseaux.  loc.  cit.  p.  1268. 

Beeton,  S.  O.,  Poultry  and  Pigeons.     Ward  &  Bowden,  London. 

Brice,  F.  B.,  Jr.,  Successful  Pigeon  Raising. 

Cox,  W.  E.  and  Rice,  W.  E.,  Squabs  for  Profit.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  N.  Y.  City. 

English,  Poultry  and  Pigeons,  Engravings  and  Designs  by  H.  Weir.  (1862)  Bickers 
&  Bush,  London. 

Fly,  E.  A.,  Poultry  and  Pigeon  Raising. 

Fulton,  R.,  Book  of  Pigeons.     Cassell  &  Co.,  London. 

Gilbert,  F.  L.,  Pigeons  and  all  about  them.  American  Poultry  Jour.  Pub.  Co,, 
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Graham,  C.  K.,  Squab  Investigations.     Conn.  (Storrs)  Bui.  No.  50.     (1907). 

Howard,  G.  E.  &  Co.,  Poultry  and  Pigeon  Fancier's  Companion  and  Breeder's 
Directory.  (1897).  Washington,  D.  C. 

Meersch,  A.  V.,  Pigeons:    Care  and  Management  for  Pleasure  and  Profit. 

Rice,  E,  C.,  National  Standard  Squab  Book.  American  Poultry  Jour.  Pub.  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

Rice,  Win.  E.,  Squab  Raising.     U.  S.  Farmers'  Bui.  177. 

Selby,  P.  J.,  Natural  History  of  Pigeons.     W.  H.  Lizars,  Edinburgh. 

Sorter,  F.   A.,   Breeding  for  Squabs.     (1908).     Douglasville,   Pa. 

Summers,  J.  A.,  Diseases  of  Pigeons.  American  Poultry  Jour.  Pub.  Co.,  Chicago, 
111. 

Summers,  J.  A.,  Successful  Pigeon  Breeding.     Frecks,  Pa. 

Tegetmeier,  W.  B.,  Pigeons:  Their  Structure,  Varieties,  Habits  and  Management. 
Routledge  &  Son,  London. 

Twombly,  C.  E.,  Pigeon  Standard.     American  Poultry  Jour.  Pub.  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Walters,  John,  The  Jacobin.     (English). 

Webber,  J.  A.,  The  Working  Homer. 

Wright,  Mr.,  Practical  Pigeon  Keeper. 

Wright,  Mr.,  The  Feather's  Practical  Squab  Book.  Geo.  E.  Howard  Pub.  Co., 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Wright,  Mr.,  The  Feather's  Practical  Pigeon  Book.  Geo.  E.  Howard  Pub.  Co., 
Washington,  D.  C. 

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Slocum,  R.  R.,  Poultry  Work  of  the  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.  U.  S. 
Bu.  An.  Ind.  Rep.  1907. 

Thompson,  G.  F.,  Distribution  and  Magnitude  of  the  Poultry  and  Egg  Industry. 
U.  S.  Bu.  Animal  Industry  Rep.  1902. 

Wisconsin,  Organization  of  Poultry  Dept.     Report  of  Director,  Bui.  No.  193. 

Systems  of  Poultry  Keeping 

Hosterman  Pub.  Co.,  The  Briggs  System.     Binghamton,  N.  Y. 
Philo,  E.  R.,  The  Philo  System.     Elmira,  N.  Y. 
Potter,  T.  F.  &  Co.,  Don't  Kill  the  Laying  Hen. 

Turkeys 

Blanchard,  H.  L.,  Hatching  and  Rearing  Turkeys.     Washington  Bui.  No.  96. 

Corbett,  Adolphe,  Raising  of  Turkeys  and  how  the  Queen  of  England  Manages^to 
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Cushman,  S.,  Turkeys.     R.  I.  Bui.  No.  25  (1893). 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  Turkeys.     Care  and  Management.     N.  Y.  City. 

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Eng. 

Field,  Fanny,  Practical  Turkey  Raising.     E.  R.  Mitchell,  Chicago,  111. 


WATERFOWL  155 

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Johnson,  G.  M.,  The  Turkey,  Duck  and  Goose.     Binghamton,  N.  Y. 

Jouett,  W.,  Epizootic  Pneumo-pericarditis  in  the  Turkey.  34  (1909)  No.  I  Agr. 
Jour.  Cape  Good  Hope. 

McGrew,  T.  F.,  Turkeys:  Standard  Varieties  and  Management.  U.  S.  Farmers' 
Bui.  No.  200. 

Meyrick,  Herbert,  Turkeys  and  How  to  Grow  Them.  Orange  Judd  Co.,  N.  Y. 
City. 

Reliable  Poultry  Jour.  Pub.  Co.,  Turkeys;  Their  Care  and  Management  for  Exhibi- 
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Rhode  Island  Agr.  College,  Turkey  Breeding.     Report  1907. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Experiments  with  Turkeys;  Grit  and  Ash  for  Growing  Chicks; 
A  Successful  Brooder  House.  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  225  (Exp.  Sta.  Work.) 

Watson,  O.  M.,  Egg  Production  of  Turkeys;  Weight  of  Chickens.  South 
Carolina  No.  74. 

Waterfowl 

Brown,  W.  and  E.,  Cost  of  Rearing  Ducklings.     University  College,  England. 

Cook,  Wm.,  Ducks  and  How  to  Make  Them  Pay.     (1895)  London. 

Corbett,  Adolphe,  How  to  Raise  Ducks. 

Digby,  H.,  How  to  Make  50  Pounds  a  Year  Keeping  Ducks.  Treatise  on  Geese. 
English. 

Digby,  H.,  Standard  for  Waterfowl.     English. 

Donald,  J.,  Indian  Runner  Duck.     English. 

England,  Bd.  Agr.,  Cost  of  Rearing  Ducklings.     Jour.  Bd.  Agr.  15  (1908)  No.  9. 

England,  Bd.  Agr.  and  Fisheries,  Ducks.     Leaflet  No.  167. 

England,  Bd.  Agr.  and  Fisheries,  Rearing  and  Marketing  Geese.     Leaflet  No.  198. 

Flagg,  Chas.  O.,  Goose-breeding.     R.  I.  Rep.  1897. 

Howard,  Geo.  E.,  Ducks  and  Geese.     U.  S.  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  64. 

Ireland,  Bd.  Agr.  and  Tech.  Instr.,  Geese.     Leaflet  No.  198. 

Johnson,  G.  M.  F.,  The  Turkey,  Duck,  and  Goose.     Binghamton,  N.  Y. 

Lewis,  J.,  Some  Notes  on  the  Hybridizing  of  Ducks.  Bonbote.  Orvis — Vol.  14  (1905) 
PP-  235-264.  Zool.  Anz.  34,  p.  343. 

Pound,  C.  J.,  Infectious  Leukaemia  in  Ducks.  Queensland  Agr.  Jour.  20  (1908) 
No.  3 — pp.  136-138. 

Rankin,  Jas.,  Natural  and  Artificial  Duck  Culture  (1889),  Daniel  Gunn,  Boston, 
Mass. 

Reliable  Poultry  Jour.,  Pub.  Co.,  Ducks  and  Geese.     Quincy,  111. 

Rhode  Island,  Blackhead,  Cross-breeding  Geese.  Rep.  1894. 

Rhode  Island,  Experiments  with  Geese.     Rep.   1895. 

Rhode  Island,  Cross-breeding  Geese;   Analysis  of  Foods.     Report  1896. 

Rhode  Island,  Incubation  and  Brooding.     Goose  Experiments.     Rep.    1902. 

Spencer,  A.,  Duck  Rearing  in  the  Vale  of  Aylesbury.     Eyre  &  Spottiswoode,  London. 

Stoddard,  H.  H.,  Domestic  Waterfowl.     Hartford,  Conn. 

Sutcliffe,  J.  H.,  Duck  Farming.     English. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Geese  for  Profit.     Farmers'  Bui.  No.  65.     Exp.  Sta.  Work. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Feeding  Ducks.     Farmers'  Bui.  No.  107.     Exp.  Sta.  Work. 


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U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Animal  Food  for  Ducks.  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  233.  (Exp.  Sta. 
Work.) 

Vale,  W.  W.,  Profitable  Ducks— English. 

Weber  Bros.,  How  we  Make  Ducks  Pay.     Amer.  Pekin  Duck  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

How  TO  SECURE  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF 
AGRICULTURE 

Publications  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  those  of  a  popular  nature  and  intended  for  wide  circulation,  and 
those  of  a  more  technical  nature  and  intended  for  a  more  restricted  circula- 
tion. The  first  class  includes  Farmers'  Bulletins,  Circulars  of  the  various 
Bureaus,  and  certain  other  periodical  publications,  such  as  the  Crop 
Reporter  and  the  Monthly  List  of  Publications  issued  by  the  Department. 
The  second  class  includes  the  bulletins  of  the  various  bureaus,  the  annual 
reports  of  the  bureaus  and  the  Year  Book  of  the  Department,  besides 
special  publications  and  reports. 

Any  publication,  whether  of  the  first  or  second  of  these  classes,  of  which 
a  supply  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Department  is  for  free  distribution.  Appli- 
cation for  these  publications  should  be  made  to  the  Editor  and  Chief  of  the 
Division  of  Publications,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  As  the 
editions  of  many  of  these  publications  are  necessarily  limited,  and  no  funds 
are  available  for  securing  additional  copies,  the  list  of  those  in  the  hands 
of  the  Department  is  constantly  changing.  Where  the  Department's 
supply  is  exhausted,  application  must  be  made  to  the  Superintendent  of 
Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  who  has  them  for  sale  at  a 
nominal  price.  Remittance  should  be  made  by  Postal  Money  Order, 
Express  Order  or  New  York  Draft.  Currency  may  be  sent  at  owner's  risk. 
Postage  stamps,  foreign  money,  uncertified  checks,  defaced  or  sleek  coin 
will  not  be  accepted. 

Applications  by  residents  of  foreign  countries  for  Farmers'  Bulletins 
should  be  sent  to  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  should  be  accompanied  by  six  (6)  cents,  the 
price  per  copy  including  postage.  Applications  from  foreign  countries 
for  other  publications  must  be  accompanied  by  the  price  of  the  publication 
plus  the  regular  rate  of  postage.  No  charge  is  made  for  postage  on  docu- 
ments forwarded  to  points  in  the  United  States,  Guam,  Hawaii,  Philippine 
Islands,  Porto  Rico,  or  to  Canada,  Cuba  or  Mexico. 

Senators,  Representatives  and  Delegates  in  Congress,  each  have  a  quota 
of  several  thousand  copies  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  and  of  certain  other  publi- 
cations such  as  the  Year  Book  of  the  Department.  These  publications  are 


ADDRESSES   OF   COLLEGES    AND    EXPERIMENT   STATIONS  157 

supplied  them  for  distribution  among  their  constituents.  It  is  often  possi- 
ble, therefore,  to  secure  these  publications  by  direct  application  to  one's 
Representative  or  Senator. 

ADDRESSES  OF  COLLEGES  AND  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 

Academy  of  Sciences,  Washington.   D.  C. 

Arizona,  Experiment  Station,  Tucson. 

Arkansas,  Experiment  Station,  Fayetteville. 

Alabama,  Experiment  Station,  Auburn. 

California,  State  College,  Berkeley. 

Colorado,  Experiment  Station,  Fort  Collins. 

Connecticut,   Agricultural  College,   Storrs. 

Delaware,  Experiment  Station,  Newark. 

Indiana,  Purdue  University,  Lafayette. 

Iowa,  Agricultural  College,  Ames. 

Kansas,  Agricultural  College,  Manhattan. 

Kansas,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Topeka. 

Kentcuky,  Experiment  Station,  Lexington. 

Louisiana,  Experiment  Station,  Baton  Rouge. 

Maine,  Agricultural  College  and  Experiment  Station,  Orono. 

Maine,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Augusta. 

Maryland,  Agricultural  College,  College  Park. 

Massachusetts,  Agricultural  College,  Amherst. 

Massachusetts,  Board  of  Agriculture,  Boston. 

Michigan,  Experiment  Station,  Agricultural  College. 

Minnesota,  University  of  Minnesota,  St.  Paul. 

Mississippi,  Agricultural  College,  Agricultural  College. 

Missouri,  Experiment  Station,  Columbia. 

Missouri,  Poultry  Experiment  Station,  Mountain  Grove. 

Montana,  Experiment  Station,  Bozeman. 

Nebraska,  Experiment  Station,  Lincoln. 

New  Jersey,  Agricultural  College,  New  Brunswick. 

New  York,  Agicultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva. 

New  York,  Cornell  Experiment  Station,  Ithaca. 

New  South  Wales,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 

New  Zealand,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wellington. 

Nevada,  Experiment  Station,  Reno. 

North  Carolina,  Experiment  Station,  Raleigh. 

North  Dakota,  Experiment  Station,  Agricultural  College. 

Ohio,  Agricultural  College,  Columbus. 

Oklahoma,  Experiment  Station,  Stillwater. 

Oregon,  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania,  Agricultural  College,  State  College. 

Pennsylvania,   Department  of  Agriculture,  Harrisburg. 

Rhode  Island,  Agricultural  College,  Kingston. 

South  Dakota,  Agricultural  College,  Brookings. 


158  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

South  Carolina,  Experiment  Station,  Clemson  College. 

Utah,  Experiment  Station,  Logan. 

Virginia,  Experiment  Station,  Blacksburg. 

Washington,  Experiment  Station,  Pullman. 

West  Virginia,  Experiment  Station,  Morgantown. 

Wisconsin,  Agricultural  College,  Madison. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,   D.   C. 

United  States  Bureau  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

United  States  Bureau  Chemistry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

United  States  Bureau  Entomology,  Washington,  D.  C. 

United  States  Office  Experiment  Stations,  Washington,  D.  C. 

United  States  Division  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Australia,  Hawkesbury  Agricultural  College,  Roseworthy,  S.  Australia. 

British  Columbia,  Department  Agriculture,  Victoria. 

Canada,  Alberta,  Dep't  Agriculture,  Edmonton. 

Canada,  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Guelph. 

Canada,  Central  Experimental  Farms,  Ottawa. 

England,  Board  Agriculture  and  Fisheries,  London. 

England,  University  College,  Reading. 

England,  National  Poultry  Organization  Society,  London. 

Ireland,  Board  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction,  Dublin. 

Japan,  Government,  Tokio. 

Respectfully  submitted, 
CLARA  NIXON, 
VICTOR  FORTIER, 
FRANK  SURFACE, 
R.  R.  SLOCUM, 
J.  M.  TURPIN. 


CONSTITUTION  AND   BY-LAWS 

ARTICLE  i — NAME 

SECTION  i.  The  name  of  this  organization  shall  be  the  International  Association 
of  Instructors  and  Investigators  in  Poultry  Husbandry. 

ARTICLE  2 — OBJECTS 

SECTION  i.  The  objects  of  this  Association  shall  be  the  advancement  of  poultry 
husbandry  throughout  the  United  States  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  especially 
as  it  relates  to  the  profession  of  teaching  and  research. 

ARTICLE  3 — MEMBERSHIP 

SECTION  i.  The  members  of  this  Association  shall  be  persons  engaged  in  instruction 
or  investigation  in  poultry  husbandry  in  any  educational  institution  or  experiment 
station  in  the  United  States  or  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  who,  upon  recommendation  by 
one  or  more  members,  shall  be  elected  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  Executive  Committee. 

ARTICLE  4 — EXPULSION  OF  MEMBERS 

SECTION  i.  Any  member  who  shall  be  found  guilty  of  an  offence  not  in  keeping 
with  the  dignity  and  honor  of  a  teacher  or  investigator  may  be  expelled  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  the  members  of  the  Executive  Committee,  who  shall  receive  and  weigh  evidence 
for  and  against  the  member  accused.  The  member  shall  have  the  right  of  appeal  to  the 
Association. 

ARTICLE  5— INITIATION  FEE  AND  DUES 

SECTION  i.  The  initiation  fee  of  this  Association  shall  be  two  dollars  ($2),  payable 
with  the  application  for  membership;  and  the  dues  shall  be  one  dollar  ($i)  annually 
thereafter,  payable  on  or  before  the  date  of  the  annual  meeting. 

SECTION  2.  Members  whose  dues  have  not  been  paid  within  one  year  after  the  date 
of  the  last  annual  meeting  shall  be  considered  as  having  forfeited  their  membership. 

SECTION  3.  Persons  who  have  been  dropped  from  membership  because  of  non-pay- 
ment of  dues  may  be  re-instated  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  Executive  Committee  upon 
receipt  of  a  written  statement  from  the  Secretary-Treasurer  that  all  back  dues  have 
been  paid. 

ARTICLE  VI — OFFICERS 

SECTION  i.  The  officers  of  this  Association  shall  be  a  President,  First  and  Second 
Vice-Presidents,  Secretary-Treasurer  and  five  directors  who  shall  constitute  an  Executive 
Committee  of  nine  members. 

SECTION  2.  The  term  of  office  for  all  officers  shall  be  one  year,  or  until  their  suc- 
cessors shall  be  elected,  except  the  directors,  whose  term  of  office  shall  be  for  two 
years.  At  the  first  election  three  directors  shall  be  elected  for  two  years  and  two  for  one 
year. 

SECTION  3.  The  office  of  President  shall  not  be  filled  by  the  same  person  for  more 
than  one  year  in  succession. 

SECTION  4.  Neither  the  President,  the  Vice-Presidents  nor  any  two  members  of 
the  Board  of  Directors  shall  be  chosen  from  the  same  State  or  Province. 


160  CONSTITUTION   AND   BY-LAWS 

ARTICLE  VII — ELECTION  OF  OFFICERS 

SECTION  i.  The  officers  shall  be  elected  by  ballot  at  the  annual  meeting.  The  first 
ballot  shall  be  informal. 

SECTION  2.  It  shall  require  a  majority  of  all  ballots  cast  to  elect  any  officer.  Should 
there  be  three  or  more  candidates  for  any  office  after  the  second  informal  ballot,  the 
lowest  one  on  the  list  shall  be  dropped  after  each  succeeding  ballot  until  some  one  gets  a 
majority. 

SECTION  3.  The  newly  elected  officers  shall  asume  the  duties  of  their  office  immedi- 
ately at  the  close  of  the  annual  meeting. 

SECTION  4.  Vacancies  in  office  shall  be  filled  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  Executive 
Committee. 

ARTICLE  VIII — DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS 

SECTION  i.  The  duties  of  the  President  shall  be  to  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the 
Association  and  of  the  Executive  Committee  and  to  perform  the  usual  duties  of  that 
office.  He  shall  appoint  all  committees  not  otherwise  provided  for,  and  sign  all  checks, 
drafts  or  orders  on  the  funds  of  the  Association. 

SECTION  2.  The  duties  of  Vice- Presidents.  In  the  event  of  the  absence  of  the  Presi- 
dent or  his  inability  to  act,  the  first  Vice-President  shall  perform  the  duties  of  the  Presi- 
dent In  case  of  the  absence  or  inability  to  act  of  the  first  Vice-President,  the  second 
Vice-President  shall  perform  the  duties  of  the  President. 

SECTION  3.     The  Duties  of  the  Secretary-Treasurer  shall  be: 

(a)  To  keep  the  records  of  all  transactions  of  the  Association. 

(b)  To  have  charge  of  all  the  correspondence  of  the  Association. 

(c)  To  collect  all  money  due  the  Association. 

(d)  To  be  custodian  of  all  properties  belonging  to  the  Association. 

(e)  To  prepare  and  distribute  notices  of  all  meetings. 

(f )  To  deposit  all  funds  of  the  Association  in  such  bank  or  banks  as  may  be  desig- 
nated in  writing  by  the  Executive  Committee. 

(g)  To  pay  out  of  the  funds  of  the  Association  only  by  check  countersigned  by  the 
President  and  accompanied  by  itemized  bills,  which  shall  later  be  receipted  and  filed. 

(h)     To  make  a  financial  report  at  each  annual  meeting. 

(i)     To  make  a  report  of  the  minutes  of  all  meetings. 

(j)  To  edit  an  annual  report  in  the  event  of  the  authorization  of  a  report  by  the 
Executive  Committee. 

SECTION  4.  The  Secretary-Treasurer  shall  give  a  bond  which  shall  be  effective  when 
approved  by  the  Executive  Committee. 

SECTION  5.  The  duties  of  the  Executive  Committee  shall  be  to  have  general  charge 
of  the  affairs  of  the  Association  when  not  in  annual  session. 

ARTICLE  9 — COMMITTEES 
SECTION  i.     At  the  annual  meeting  the  President  shall  appoint 

(a)  A  Legislative  Committee  of  three  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  promote  legislation 
which  shall  safeguard  the  interests  of  poultry  husbandry. 

(b)  A  Committee  on  Investigational  Work. 

(c)  A  Committee  on  the  Systematizing  of  instruction  in  Poultry  Husbandry. 

(d)  A  Committee  on  the  Advancement  of  the  Principles  of  Breeding  Poultry. 

(e)  A  Committee  on  the  Progress  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Feeding  of  Poultry. 


BY-LAWS  161 

(f)  A  Committee  on  the  Development  of  the  Science  of  Incubation  and  Brooding. 

(g)  A  Committee  on  Poultry  Diseases  and  Parasites, 
(h)     A  Committee  on  Bibliography. 

ARTICLE  10 — MEETINGS 

SECTION  i.  The  annual  meeting  shall  be  held  at  such  time  and  place  as  shall  be 
designated  by  the  Executive  Committee. 

SECTION  2.  Special  meetings  of  the  Executive  Committee  may  be  called  by  the  Presi- 
dent and  must  be  called  upon  the  written  request  to  him  of  five  members  of  the 
Executive  Committee  or  of  one-fifth  of  the  membership  of  the  Association. 

SECTION  3.  Notice  of  all  meetings  of  the  Executive  Committee  shall  be  mailed  to 
each  member  of  the  Executive  Committee  by  the  Secretary  Treasurer  at  least  ten  days 
before  they  are  held. 

BY-LAWS 

ARTICLE  i — ORDER  OF  BUSINESS 

Roll  call. 

Minutes  of  the  last  meeting. 

Election  of  new  members. 

Report  of  Executive  Committee. 

Report  of  other  standing  committees. 

Report  of  special  committees. 

Unfinished  business. 

Election  of  officers. 

New  business. 

ARTICLE  2 — FUNDS 

SECTION  i.  The  President  and  Secretary-Treasurer  shall  not  pay  out  the  funds  of 
the  Association  for  any  extraordinary  expense  without  the  authority  of  the  Executive 
Committee. 

No  committee  shall  render  the  Association  liable  to  an  amount  exceeding  that  appro- 
priated by  the  Executive  Committee. 

ARTICLE  3 — TELLERS 

SECTION  i.  At  the  annual  meeting  the  president  shall  appoint  three  tellers  whose 
duties  it  shall  be  to  have  charge  of  the  election. 

ARTICLE  4 — AMENDMENTS 

The  constitution  and  by-laws  may  be  altered  or  amended  only  by  a  two-thirds  vote 
at  an  annual  meeting  after  each  members  of  the  Association  has  had  a  thirty-day  notice 
in  writing  of  the  proposed  amendment. 

ARTICLE  5 — QUORUM 
SECTION  i.    One-fifth  of  the  members  of  the  Association  shall  constitute  a  quorum. 


MEMBERS 

Atwood,  Horace,  (charter),  M.S.  in  Agr.,  Asst.  Agriculturist,  W.  Va.  Agr.  Expt. 
Station,  Morgantown,  W.  Va. 

Barto,  D.  O.,  (1909),  Extension  Department,  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana,  111. 

Blanchard,  H.  L.,  (1910),  Asst.  Supt.  In  charge  of  Dairy  and  Poultry  Investi- 
gation, Puyallup,  Wash. 

Brigham,  A.  A.,  (1909),  B.S.,  Ph.D.,  Principal  School  of  Agriculture;  Supt.  South 
Dakota  State  College  Summer  School;  Director  South  Dakota  College  Extension, 
South  Dakota  State  College,  Brookings,  S.  D. 

Brown,  C.  E.,  (1908),  Poultryman,  University  of  Minnesota,  North  West  Expt. 
Farm  and  School  of  Agriculture,  Crookston,  Minn. 

Brown,  W.  A.,  (charter),  B.S.A.,  M.S.,  Poultry  Expert  for  the  Dominion,  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Ottawa,  Canada. 

Campbell,  S.  T.,  (charter),  Secretary  American  Poultry  Association,  Mansfield,  Ohio. 

Chapman,  N.  E.,  (1909),  A.B.,  B.D.,  A.M.,  Poultry  Specialist,  Extension  Division 
of  State  Agricultural  College,  University  of  Chicago,  Denison  University,  Owatonna, 
Minn. 

Clark,  J.  W.,  (charter),  Cainsville,  Ontario,  Canada. 

Cole,  L.  J.,  (1909),  Ph.D.,  Associate  Professor  of  Experimental  Breeding,  Wisconsin 
Agr.  College  and  Expt.  Station,  Madison,  Wis. 

Coleman,  W.  E.,  (1909). 

Crane,  Otis,  (1908),  Lebanon,  Ind. 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  (charter),  Ph.D.,  Director,  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington, 
Cold  Spring  Harbor,  L.  I. 

Drew,  James  M.,  (1908),  Registrar,  College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Minnesota, 
St.  Anthony's  Park,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Dryden,  James,  (charter),  Professor  Poultry  Husbandry,  Oregon  Agri.  College  and 
Expt.  Station,  Corvallis,  Oregon. 

Dynes,  O.  W.,  (charter),  B.S.,  Associate  Professor  of  Agronomy,  N.  Dak.  Agri. 
College,  Agricultural  College,  N.  D. 

Edwards,  S.  F.,  (1910),  Professor  Bacteriology,  Ontario  Agri.  College,  Guelph, 
Canada. 

Elford,  F.  C.,  (charter),  Cypher's  Incubator  Mfg.  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Foley,  A.  W.,  (1909),  Edmonton,  Alberta,  Canada. 

Fortier,  Victor,  (1908),  M.S.  N.A.,  de  F.,  Poultry  Manager,  Central  Experimental 
Farm,  Ottawa,  Canada. 

Gage,  Geo.  Edward,  (1909),  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Asst.  Professor  of  Animal  Pathology, 
Massachusetts  Agri.  College,  Amherst,  Mass. 

Gilbert,  A.  G.,  (1909),  Supt.  Poultry  Division,  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa, 
Canada. 

Graham,  C.  K.,  (charter),  Director  of  Agricultural  Department,  Hampton  Normal 
and  Agricultural  Institute,  Hampton,  Va. 

Graham,  W.  R.,  (charter),  B.S.A.,  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College,  Guelph,  Canada. 

Hadley,  P.  B.,  (charter),  Ph.B.,  Ph.D.,  Biologist,  Experiment  Station  of  the  R.  I. 
State  College,  Kingston,  R.  I. 


MEMBERS  163 

Halpin,  James  G.,  (charter),  B.S.A.,  Associate  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry, 
University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

Jackson,  Homer  W.,  (1909),  Cyphers  Incubator  Mfg.  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Jacobs,  W.  S.,  (1908),  Fayetteville,  Ark. 

Jacoby,  F.  S.,  (1910),  B.S.A.,  Instructor  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  Ohio  State  Agri. 
College,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Jaffa,  M.  E.,  (1909),  Ph.B.,  M.S.,  Professor  of  Nutrition,  Director  Pure  Food  and 
Drug  Laboratory,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

Jeffrey,  J.  S.,  (1908),  Cyphers  Incubator  Mfg.  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Jull,  M.  A.,  (1909),  B.S.A.,  W.H.  Gunn  &  Co.,  135  Water  St.,  Vancouver,  B.  C. 

Kempster,  H.  L.,  (1909),  B.S.,  Asst.  Professor  Poultry  Husbandry,  University  of 
Missouri,  Columbia,  Mo. 

Kerr,  J.  P.,  (charter),  Agricultural  College,  Miss. 

Kirkpatrick,  Wm.  F.,  (1908).  B.E.,  B.Agr.,  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Conn. 
Agr.  Col.  Storrs,  Conn. 

Krum,  Walter  G.,  (charter),  Supt.  of  Poultry  Plant,  New  York  State  College  of 
Agriculture  at  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Lambert,  D.  J.,  (1908),  Instructor  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  R.  I.  State  College, 
Kingston,  R.  I. 

Lamson,  G.  H.,  (1909),  Storrs,  Conn. 

Landry,  J.  P.,  (1909),  Manager  and  Lecturer,  Poultry  Department,  Nova  Scotia 
Agri.  College,  Truro,  Nova  Scotia,  Canada. 

Lane,  D.  J.,  (1909),  University  of  Minnesota,  St.  Anthony's  Park,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Lawry,  R.  C.,  (charter),  B.S.  in  Agr.,  Vice-President,  Yesterlaid  Egg  Farms  Co., 
Pacific,  Mo. 

Lee,  A.  R.,  (1909),  B.S.,  Junior  Animal  Husbandman,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Lippincott,  Wm.  A.,  (1909),  A.B.,  B.S.  in  A.  H.,  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry, 
State  Agri.  College,  Manhattan,  Kas. 

Lunn,  A.  G.,  (1909),  Asst.  Poultryman,  Instructor  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  Oregon 
Agri.  College,  Corvallis,  Oregon. 

McAleer,  H.  A.,  (1909),  Investigator  in  Poultry  and  Egg  Handling,  Food  Research 
Laboratory,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1833  Chestnut  St.,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

McGrew,  T.  F.,  (1909),  Principal  of  the  School  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  International 
Correspondence  Schools,  Scranton,  Pa. 

Morse,  G.  B.,  (charter),  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Nixon,  Miss  Clara  M.,  (charter),  Asst.  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  N.  Y.  State  College 
of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Opperman,  C.  L.,  (charter),  Junior  Animal  Husbandman,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Pearl,  Raymond,  (charter),  A.B.,  Ph.D.,  Biologist,  Maine  Agri.  Expt.  Station, 
Orono,  Me. 

Phillips,  A.  G.,  (1908),  B.S.  in  Agr.,  Instructor  in  charge  of  poultry  in  Purdue  Uni- 
versity and  Associate  in  Experiment  Station,  Lafayette,  Ind. 

Pierce,  H.  C.,  (charter),  B.S. A.,  Investigator  in  Poultry  and  Egg  Handling,  Food 
Research  Laboratory,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1833  Chestnut  St., 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 


164  MEMBERS 

Quisenbeny,  T.  E.,  (1909),  Director,  Missouri  State  Poultry  Experiment  Station, 
Mountain  Grove,  Mo. 

Rice,  James  E.,  (charter)  B.S.  in  Agr.,  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  at  Cornell 
University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Rider,  Wm.  M.,  (1909),  B.S.,  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  and  Dairying,  Winona 
College  of  Agriculture,  Winona  Lake,  Ind. 

Rogers,  C.  A.,  (charter),  M.S.  in  Agr.,  Asst.  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  N.  Y. 
State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Schoppe,  W.  F.,  (1909),  B.S.,  Asst.  Professor  of  Animal  Industry  in  Poultry 
Husbandry,  Col.  of  Agr.,  Orono,  Me. 

Schreiner,  T.  E.,  (1910),  Asst.,  N.  Y.  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Slocum,  R.  R.,  (charter),  B.S. A.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Spear,  A.  E.,  (1910),  Teacher  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricul- 
tural Institute,  Hampton,  Va. 

Stoneburn,  F.  H.,  (1909),  care  of  the  McGuckin — McDevitt  Co.,  Morris  Building, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Surface,  F.  M.,  (1908). 

Turpin,  Geo.  M.,  (1909),  B.S.  in  Agr.,  Asst.  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Utah 
Agri.  College,  Logan,  Utah. 

Vaplon,  W.  E.,  (1909),  Poultryman,  Colorado  Agri.  College,  Fort  Collins,  Colo. 

Waite,  Roy  H.,  (1909),  B.S.,  Associate  Poultryman,  Maryland  Agri.  Expt.  Station, 
College  Park,  Md. 

Wheeler,  W.  P.,  (charter),  First  Asst.,  N.  Y.  Agri.  Expt.  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

Wilkins,  S.  D.,  (charter),  Instructor  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  University  of  California, 
Davis,  Cal, 


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